Cover	1
	A New Ecology: Systems Perspective	4
	Copyright page	5
	Contents	6
	Preface	10
	Chapter 1. Introduction: A New Ecology is Needed	14
	1.1 Environmental Management has Changed	14
	1.2 Ecology is Changing	15
	1.3 Book Outline	16
	Chapter 2. Ecosystems have Openness (thermodynamic)	20
	2.1 Why must Ecosystems be open?	20
	2.2 An Isolated System would die (Maximum Entropy)	21
	2.3 Physical Openness	26
	2.4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics Interpreted for Open Systems	31
	2.5 Dissipative Structure	33
	2.6 Quantification of Openness and Allometric Principles	35
	2.7 The Cell	43
	2.8 What about the Environment?	44
	2.9 Conclusion	45
	Chapter 3. Ecosystems have Ontic Openness	48
	3.1 Introduction	48
	3.2 Why is Ontic Openness so Obscure?	49
	3.3 Ontic Openness and the Physical World	52
	3.4 Ontic Openness and Relative Stability	62
	3.5 The Macroscopic Openness: Connections to Thermodynamics	63
	3.6 Ontic Openness and Emergence	66
	3.7 Ontic Openness and Hierarchies	68
	3.8 Consequences of Ontic Openness: A Tentative Conclusion	69
	Chapter 4. Ecosystems have Directionality	72
	4.1 Since the Beginnings of Ecology	72
	4.2 The Challenge from Thermodynamics	73
	4.3 Deconstructing Directionality?	75
	4.4 Agencies Imparting Directionality	76
	4.5 Origins of Evolutionary Drive	79
	4.6 Quantifying Directionality in Ecosystems	81
	4.7 Demystifying Darwin	87
	4.8 Directionality in Evolution?	89
	4.9 Summary	90
	Chapter 5. Ecosystems have Connectivity	92
	5.1 Introduction	92
	5.2 Ecosystems as Networks	93
	5.3 Food Webs	95
	5.4 Systems Analysis	97
	5.5 Ecosystem Connectivity and Ecological Network Analysis	99
	5.6 Network Environ Analysis Primer	99
	5.7 Summary of the Major Insights Cardinal Hypotheses (CH) from Network Environ Analysis	105
	5.8 Conclusions	114
	Chapter 6. Ecosystems have Complex Dynamics (Growth and Development)	116
	6.1 Variability in Life Conditions	116
	6.2 Ecosystem Development	118
	6.3 Orientors and Succession Theories	125
	6.4 The Maximum Power Principle	128
	6.5 Exergy, Ascendency, Gradients, and Ecosystem Development	133
	6.6 Support for the Presented Hypotheses	138
	6.7 Toward a Consistent Ecosystem Theory	146
	6.8 Exergy Balances for the Utilization of Solar Radiation	152
	6.9 Summary and Conclusions	154
	Chapter 7. Ecosystems have Complex Dynamics – Disturbance and Decay	156
	7.1 The Normality of Disturbance	156
	7.2 The Risk of Orientor Optimization	164
	7.3 The Characteristics of Disturbance	165
	7.4 Adaptability as a Key Function of Ecosystem Dynamics	169
	7.5 Adaptive Cycles on Multiple Scales	173
	7.6 A Case Study: Human Disturbance and Retrogressive Dynamics	177
	7.7 Summary and Conclusions	179
	Chapter 8. Ecosystem Principles have Broad Explanatory Power in Ecology	180
	8.1 Introduction	180
	8.2 Do Ecological Principles Encompass other Proposed Ecological Theories?: Evolutionary Theory	181
	8.3 Do Ecological Principles Encompass other Proposed Ecological Theories?: Island Biogeography	189
	8.4 Do Ecological Principles Encompass other Proposed Ecological Theories?: Latitudinal Gradients in Biodiversity	193
	8.5 Do Ecological Principles Encompass other Proposed Ecological Theories?: Optimal Foraging Theory	197
	8.6 Do Ecological Principles Encompass other Proposed Ecological Theories?: Niche Theory	200
	8.7 Do Ecological Principles Encompass other Proposed Ecological Theories?: Liebig’s Law of the Minimum	204
	8.8 Do Ecological Principles Encompass other Proposed Ecological Theories?: The River Continuum Concept (RCC)	207
	8.9 Do Ecological Principles Encompass other Proposed Ecological Theories?: Hysteresis in Nature	209
	8.10 Conclusions	211
	Chapter 9. Ecosystem Principles have Applications	212
	9.1 Introduction	212
	9.2 Entropy Production as an Indicator of Ecosystem Trophic State	213
	9.3 The use of Ecological Network Analysis (ENA) for the Simulation of the Interaction of the American Black Bear and its Environment	219
	9.4 Applications of Network Analysis and Ascendency to South Florida Ecosystems	223
	9.5 The Application of Eco-Exergy as Ecological Indicator for Assessment of Ecosystem Health	231
	9.6 Emergy as Ecological Indicator to Assess Ecosystem Health	234
	9.7 The Eco-Exergy to Empower Ratio and the Efficiency of Ecosystems	241
	9.8 Application of Eco-Exergy and Ascendency as Ecological Indicator to the Mondego Estuary (Portugal)	244
	9.9 Conclusions	254
	Chapter 10. Conclusions and Final Remarks	256
	10.1 Are Basic Ecological Properties Needed to Explain our Observations?	256
	10.2 Previous Attempts to Present an Ecosystem Theory	256
	10.3 Recapitulation of the Ecosystem Theory	258
	10.4 Are there Basic Ecosystem Principles?	259
	10.5 Conclusion	261
	References	264
	Index	286