Understanding Multimedia Documents	2
	Foreword	5
	Contents	6
	Contributors	8
	Understanding Multimedia Documents: An Introduction	11
	1.1 Introduction	11
	1.2 A general Framework for the Study of Complex Document Comprehension	13
	1.3 Memory Processes in Multimedia Comprehension (Section 1)	14
	1.4 Contextual Strategies in Document-Based Learning (Section 2)	17
	1.5 Multimedia Research in Perspective (Section 3)	20
	1.6 Conclusions and Perspectives	22
	References	23
	Why Multimedia Learning is not Always Helpful	26
	2.1 Introduction	26
	2.2 Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning	27
	2.2.1 Types of Cognitive Load	28
	2.2.2 Differential Effects of Multimedia Presentations	29
	2.3 Animation in Multimedia Learning	31
	2.3.1 Differential Effects in Learning from Static and Animated Pictures	33
	2.3.2 Learning from Different Kinds of Animations	36
	2.4 A Closer Look on the Enabling and Facilitating Function of Multimedia	39
	2.4.1 The Zone of Proximal Development from a Cognitive Load Perspective	39
	2.4.2 Cognitive Load Effects of Manipulation and Simulation Pictures	43
	2.4.3 Constraints on Germane Cognitive Load	45
	2.5 Conclusions	47
	References	49
	Text and Picture Integration in Comprehending and Memorizing Spatial Descriptions	51
	3.1 Introduction	51
	3.2 Theoretical Framework	52
	3.2.1 Spatial Mental Models and the Role of Imagery in the Comprehension of Spatial Texts	52
	3.2.2 Visuo-Spatial Working Memory in Comprehending Spatial Descriptions	53
	3.2.3 Discourse-Picture Integration in Spatial Descriptions: An Empirical Study	55
	3.3 Experiment 1	57
	3.3.1 Method	57
	3.3.1.1 Participants	57
	3.3.1.2 Materials	57
	3.3.1.3 Procedure	58
	3.3.2 Results and Discussion	58
	3.4 Experiment 2	60
	3.4.1 Objectives	60
	3.4.2 Method	61
	3.4.2.1 Participants	61
	3.4.2.2 Materials and Procedure	61
	3.4.3 Results and Discussion	61
	3.5 Conclusions	63
	References	64
	Display of Key Pictures from Animation: Effects on Learning	68
	4.1 Introduction	68
	4.2 Multimedia Instruction for Understanding Dynamic Systems	69
	4.2.1 Multimedia Animations as Instructional Devices	69
	4.2.2 Does Animation Improve Learning?	70
	4.2.3 Cognitive Load and the Design of Multimedia Instruction	73
	4.2.4 Research Hypotheses	75
	4.3 Experiment	75
	4.3.1 Method	75
	4.3.1.1 Participants and Design	75
	4.3.1.2 Material and Apparatus	76
	4.3.1.3 Procedure	77
	4.3.2 Results and Discussion	77
	4.3.2.1 Study Time	77
	4.3.2.2 Time Spent in the Retention and Transfer Tests	78
	4.3.2.3 Score for Retention and Transfer Tests	78
	4.3.2.4 Subjective Evaluation	79
	4.3.3 Discussion	80
	4.4 Conclusion	82
	References	83
	Levels of Verbal Redundancy, Note-Taking and Multimedia Learning	86
	5.1 Introduction	86
	5.2 Theoretical Background	87
	5.2.1 The Cognitive Load Theory	87
	5.2.2 The Generative Theory of Multimedia Learning	88
	5.2.3 Redundancy in Document Comprehension	88
	5.2.3.1 Redundancy Defined as Superfluous Information	89
	5.2.3.2 Redundancy and Learners’ Prior Knowledge	89
	5.2.3.3 Redundancy Associated with Multiple Presentation Formats	90
	5.2.4 Study Objectives	91
	5.3 Experiment 1	93
	5.3.1 Method	94
	5.3.1.1 Subjects	94
	5.3.1.2 Materials	94
	5.3.1.3 Dependent Measures	96
	5.3.1.4 Procedure	97
	5.3.2 Results	97
	5.3.2.1 Performance	97
	5.3.2.2 Subjective Evaluation	98
	5.3.3 Discussion	99
	5.4 Experiment 2	100
	5.4.1 Objectives	100
	5.4.2 Method	102
	5.4.3 Results	102
	5.4.3.1 Learning Outcomes	102
	5.4.3.2 Analyses of Students’ Impressions	102
	5.4.4 Discussion	103
	5.5 Discussion and General Conclusion	104
	5.6 Appendix	106
	References	106
	Learning from a Multimedia Explanation: A Comparison of Static Pictures and Animation	109
	6.1 Introduction	109
	6.2 Constructing Mental Models from Multimedia Documents	110
	6.2.1 Constructing Mental Models from Texts and Pictures	110
	6.2.2 Processing Static and Dynamic Illustrations	111
	6.2.3 Auditory Presentation of Verbal Information	114
	6.3 Experiment	115
	6.3.1 Rationale	115
	6.3.2 Method	116
	6.3.2.1 Participants	116
	6.3.2.2 Materials	116
	6.3.2.3 Procedure	119
	6.3.3 Results	120
	6.3.3.1 Data analysis	120
	6.4 Discussion and Conclusions	121
	References	123
	Search and Comprehension Processes in Learning from Text	126
	7.1 Introduction	126
	7.2 Theoretical Background	127
	7.2.1 Cognitive Processes in Searching for Information in Documents to Answer Questions	127
	7.2.2 Differential Processes Involved in Answering Questions	129
	7.2.3 The Role of Strategic Monitoring and Comprehension in Answering Questions from Text	131
	7.3 Empirical Studies of Text Search	133
	7.3.1 Experiment 1: Reading a Text and Answering Questions	134
	7.3.1.1 Method	134
	7.3.1.2 Results	139
	7.3.1.3 Discussion	142
	7.3.2 Experiment 2: Searching for Information to Answer Questions	143
	7.3.2.1 Method	144
	7.3.2.2 Results	144
	7.3.2.3 Discussion	147
	7.4 General Discussion and Conclusions	149
	References	151
	Searching User-Controllable Animations During Learning	153
	8.1 Introduction	153
	8.1.4 Negative Effects of Animation	155
	8.1.4 Searching Animation	156
	8.2 Using User Control	157
	8.2.1 Is User Control Effective?	157
	8.2.2 Methodological Challenges in Characterizing User Control	158
	8.3 Investigating User Control	160
	8.3.1 Integrating Multiple Data Sources	161
	8.3.2 Data and Analysis	162
	8.3.3 User Control Strategies and Tactics	165
	8.3.4 Example Results	167
	8.4 Conclusion	169
	References	170
	Studying Eye Movements in Multimedia Learning	172
	9.1 Introduction	172
	9.2 The Added Value of Studying Eye Movements in Multimedia Learning	173
	9.3 The GazeTrackerTM Software	175
	9.4 Experiment	176
	9.4.1 Objectives	176
	9.4.2 Method	179
	9.4.2.1 Participants and Design	179
	9.4.2.2 Apparatus	179
	9.4.2.3 Materials	179
	9.4.2.4 Procedure	181
	9.4.3 Results and Discussion	182
	9.5 General Discussion and Conclusions	184
	References	186
	The Interaction of Verbal and Pictorial Information in Comprehension and Memory	188
	10.1 Introduction	188
	10.2 Experiment 1	190
	10.2.1 Objectives	190
	10.2.2 Method	191
	10.2.2.1 Participants	191
	10.2.2.2 Materials and Procedure	191
	10.2.3 Results and Discussion	193
	10.2.3.1 Comprehension Times of Results Sections	193
	10.2.3.2 Interest Ratings	194
	10.2.3.3 Recognition of Results Description in Text	194
	10.2.3.4 Recognition of Results Depiction in Graph	195
	10.2.3.5 Confidence in Text Recognition	195
	10.2.3.6 Confidence in Graph Recognition	195
	10.3 Experiment 2	196
	10.3.1 Objectives	196
	10.3.2 Method	196
	10.3.2.1 Participants	196
	10.3.2.2 Materials, Procedure, Apparatus, and Design	196
	10.3.3 Results and Discussion	197
	10.3.3.1 Comprehension Times of Results Sections	197
	10.3.3.2 Gaze Durations on Text	197
	10.3.3.3 Gaze Durations on Graphs	198
	10.3.3.4 Eye Movements Between Text and Graph	199
	10.3.3.5 Interest Ratings	199
	10.3.3.6 Recognition of Results Description in Text	199
	10.3.3.7 Recognition of Results Depiction in Graph	199
	10.3.3.8 Confidence in Text Recognition	200
	10.3.3.9 Confidence in Graph Recognition	200
	10.4 General Discussion and Conclusions	200
	10.1 Appendix	202
	References	203
	Hypertext Was Born Around 1200	205
	11.1 Introduction	205
	11.2 Analyzing Reading Tools of Ancient Books: Methodological Aspects	207
	11.2.1 Documentation Sources	207
	11.2.2 Study Limitations	207
	11.3 A Short History of Book Reading Tools	208
	11.3.1 The Linear Codex: A Device to Memorize Orally Transmitted Knowledge	208
	11.3.1.1 The Codex as a Major Shift in the Structuring of Textual Materials	208
	11.3.1.2 Links Between Written Text and Orality	208
	11.3.1.3 Oral Tradition vs. Written Memory	209
	11.3.2 The Birth of Non-linearity in the Written Text	209
	11.3.2.1 Reading Tools Needed Page as a Crucible to Develop	209
	11.3.2.2 Divisions and Marks in Greater Variety	210
	11.3.2.3 An ‘‘Embryo’’ of Non-linearity in Text and Reading	210
	11.3.2.4 Written Text to Transmit the Fixed Word of God	212
	11.3.3 How Written Text Became an Efficient Non-linear Artifact	212
	11.3.3.1 Reading Tools Were Made for Readers	212
	11.3.3.2 A New, ‘‘Radical’’ Reading Activity During the 13th Century	213
	11.3.3.3 Reading Tools to Support Non-linear Reading	214
	11.3.3.4 Two Important Tools: Index and Table of Contents	214
	11.3.4 The Generalisation of Non-linearity	215
	11.3.4.1 Text Secularization Increased the Need for Reading Tools	215
	11.3.4.2 New Systematic Reading Tools to Renew Knowledge	216
	11.3.4.3 Xylography and Gutenberg’s Press Allowed the Generalisation of Non-linear Books	217
	11.4 Going Back to Non-linearity Principles	217
	11.4.1 Standardized Reading Tools Made Non-linear Reading Efficient	217
	11.4.2 Linear vs. Non-linear Documents	218
	11.4.3 Linear vs. Non-linear Uses of Text and Hypertext	220
	11.5 Conclusions	221
	References	222
	From Film and Television to Multimedia Cognitive Effects	225
	12.1 Introduction	225
	12.2 Medium Specificity and Television Comprehension	226
	12.2.1 Early Studies of Film Viewers’ Attitude	226
	12.2.2 Theories and Empirical Evidence About TV Viewers	228
	12.2.3 Towards a Functional Definition of Mental Effort	229
	12.2.4 A Comparability Problem	233
	12.3 Comparisons Focused on Similar Cognitive Text Requirements	235
	12.3.1 Experiment 1: Restoring Coherence in Television Viewing and in Reading	235
	12.3.1.1 Hypotheses	236
	12.3.1.2 Method	236
	12.3.1.3 Results	238
	12.3.2 Experiment 2: Comparison Between a Literary and a Film Creative Text Comprehension	239
	12.3.2.1 Hypotheses	239
	12.3.2.2 Method	240
	12.3.2.3 Results and Discussion	241
	12.4 Text Comprehension and Multimedia Comprehension	242
	12.5 Conclusion and Research Perspectives	244
	Notes	246
	References	247
	How Should We Evaluate Multimedia Learning Environments?	250
	13.1 Introduction	250
	13.2 First Generation Experiments	251
	13.2.1 Positive Features	252
	13.2.2 Negative Features	253
	13.3 The Need for Alternative Approaches to Evaluating Multimedia Learning	256
	13.3.1 Who Benefits from Learning with (Specific Forms of) Multimedia?	257
	13.3.2 How do People Learn with Multimedia?	259
	13.3.3 How does Learning with Multimedia Change Over Time?	261
	13.3.4 How does the Wider Context Influence Learning with Multimedia?	262
	13.4 Conclusion	263
	References	264
	Memory Processes in Text and Multimedia Comprehension: Some Reflections and Perspectives	267
	14.1 Introduction	267
	14.2 Comprehension as a Complex Task Involving Costly Components	268
	14.2.1 Comprehension is Goal-Directed	268
	14.2.2 Comprehension is a Real-Time Activity	269
	14.2.3 Comprehension as a Strategic Activity	271
	14.3 On the Coordination of Components Skills in Comprehension	272
	14.3.1 Two Different Coordination Mechanisms	272
	14.3.2 Automaticity and its Limits	274
	14.3.3 Adapting the Processing/Comprehension Rhythm	275
	14.4 Challenges and Perspectives for Multimedia Research	276
	14.4.1 Interventions in Textual Formulations and Document Design	276
	14.4.2 Improving Readers’ Processing of Texts and Documents?	277
	References	278
	Author Index	281
	Subject Index	288