Acknowledgments	6
	Contents	7
	Contributors	13
	1 Introduction	14
	References	18
	2 Historical Observations on European Archaeology	20
	References	30
	3 The Present Environment: A Geographic Summary	35
	Introduction	35
	Topography	35
	Climates	38
	Biogeography	39
	Some Implications for Human Occupants	41
	Reference	41
	4 The Lower and Middle Paleolithic	42
	Ice Age Europe: Chronology and Environment	42
	The Geological Record	42
	The Deep Sea Record	44
	The Early Europeans: The Biological Record	44
	The Early Europeans: The Biological Background	45
	The First Europeans: Homo erectus	46
	Later Forms and the Emergence of Neanderthals	48
	Sites and Findspots: The Archaeological Record	48
	The Lower Paleolithic	50
	Spotlight on Two Sites	50
	Bilzingsleben	50
	Terra Amata	52
	Lower Paleolithic Stone Tools and Technology	53
	Use of Other Materials in the Lower Paleolithic	56
	Lower Paleolithic Subsistence and Behavior	57
	The Middle Paleolithic	59
	Spotlight on Two Sites	59
	La Borde	59
	Salzgitter-Lebenstedt	60
	Middle Paleolithic Stone Tools and Technology	61
	Use of Other Materials in the Middle Paleolithic	65
	Middle Paleolithic Susbsistence	66
	Scavenging or Hunting	67
	Food Procurement and Processing	68
	The Question of Cannibalism	69
	Middle Paleolithic Site Organization and Settlement Patterns	70
	Middle Paleolithic Movement and Exchange	71
	Burials, Rituals, and Art in the Middle Paleolithic	72
	References	74
	5 The Upper Paleolithic	77
	The Transition to the Upper Paleolithic	77
	Introduction	77
	A Simple Version of the Transition to the Upper Paleolithic	77
	The Skeletal Evidence	78
	The DNA Evidence	80
	The Archaeological Evidence	81
	The Aurignacian	82
	Other European Archaeological Evidence	85
	Summary of the Transition to the Upper Paleolithic	88
	Early Upper Paleolithic Subsistence	88
	Early Upper Paleolithic Settlement and Exchange	89
	The Developed Early Upper Paleolithic: The Gravettian	90
	Spotlight on a Gravettian Site: Pavlov I	91
	Gravettian Technology	94
	Gravettian Subsistence	96
	Gravettian Settlement	97
	Gravettian Exchange	99
	Gravettian Art and Ornament	100
	Gravettian Burials	101
	Europe During the Last Glacial Maximum	102
	Western Europe: The Solutrean	103
	Spotlight on a Solutrean Site: Solutré	104
	Solutrean Subsistence	105
	Solutrean Regional Interaction	106
	Solutrean Art, Ornaments, and Ritual	106
	Southern and Southeastern Europe: The Epigravettian	107
	Responses to the Glacial Maximum	108
	The Late Glacial Period	108
	Western Europe: The Magdalenian	110
	Spotlight on a Magdalenian Site: Verberie	110
	Magdalenian Subsistence Economies	111
	Magdalenian Settlement and Migration	112
	Magdalenian Exchange	115
	Magdalenian Portable Art	116
	Magdalenian Cave Art	118
	Magdalenian Ritual and Sanctuaries	121
	Magdalenian Burials	122
	Complexity in the Magdalenian of the South-West	122
	Southern Europe	123
	Eastern Europe	124
	Spotlight on a Site: Mezhirich	124
	Complexity on the Russian Plain	126
	Northern Europe	126
	Summary of the Upper Paleolithic	128
	References	128
	6 The Mesolithic	135
	Introduction	135
	Postglacial Environmental Changes	135
	The Archaeological Record	137
	The Early Mesolithic (10300--8000/7500 BP)	138
	Early Mesolithic Technology	138
	Spotlight on a Site: Svaerdborg II	140
	Early Mesolithic Subsistence	142
	Early Mesolithic Settlement	143
	Early Mesolithic Exchange	144
	Early Mesolithic Burials	145
	Early Mesolithic Art and Ornaments	145
	Early Mesolithic Summary	145
	The Late Mesolithic	146
	Late Mesolithic Technology	146
	Spotlight on a Site: Vaenget Nord	147
	Spotlight on a Very Different Site: Lepenski Vir	148
	Late Mesolithic Subsistence	150
	Late Mesolithic Settlement	151
	Late Mesolithic Exchange	153
	Late Mesolithic Art and Ornaments	154
	Late Mesolithic Burials	154
	Summary of the Mesolithic	157
	References	158
	7 Early Neolithic, the First Farmers in Europe, 7000--5500/5000 BC	162
	Introduction to the Neolithic: Chronology and Trends	162
	The Origins and Spread of Farming in Europe	167
	The Problem of a Prepottery Neolithic in Europe	172
	The Transition to Farming in Central Europe	173
	The Earliest Farmers in the Alpine Zone	177
	The Transition to Farming along the Atlantic Coast of Europe	177
	Relationship of Farmers to Hunters and Gatherers	177
	Subsistence Strategies	179
	Central Europe: The Linear Pottery	182
	Milk and Cheese Production	184
	Exchange	185
	Settlement Organization -- Household, Individual, Settlement, and Regional System	188
	Economic Specialization by Early Neolithic Settlements and Individuals	196
	Enclosures	197
	Population	200
	Warfare	200
	Social Status: Mortuary Evidence	204
	Mortality, Longevity, Sex Ratios, and Population Composition	207
	Sociopolitical Organization	208
	Rituals and Beliefs	209
	Conclusion	214
	References	215
	8 Middle Neolithic/Early Copper Age, Continuity, Diversity, and Greater Complexity, 5500/5000--3500 BC	231
	Introduction	231
	Chronology and Cultural Sequence	232
	Transition to Farming in the British Isles	233
	The Transition to Farming in Scandinavia and the North European Plain	235
	Forest Neolithic	238
	Beginnings of Metallurgy -- The Beginnings of the Copper Age in Southeastern Europe	240
	Riding and Domestication of Horses	243
	Ards and Plows	244
	Subsistence Systems	245
	Alpine Region	248
	Salt Production	251
	Tracks and Roads	252
	Flint Mining	252
	Exchange	253
	Settlement Organization	254
	Megalithic Monuments	263
	Cups, Beakers, and Drinking	272
	Warfare	272
	The Problem of Writing and Record Keeping	275
	The Origin of Complex Societies	277
	Gender Differentiation	281
	Mortality, Longevity, Sex Ratios, and Population Composition	282
	The Iceman or tzi	284
	Conclusion	285
	References	286
	9 Late Neolithic/Late Copper Age 3500--2200 BC	300
	Introduction	300
	Chronology and Cultural Sequence	301
	The Appearance of Wheeled Vehicles	307
	Wool Production	310
	Subsistence Strategies	311
	Settlement Organization	314
	Warfare	315
	Ritual and Social Organization	318
	Ranked Societies	322
	The Origin and Dispersal of the Indo-European-Speaking Populations	323
	Conclusion	326
	References	326
	10 The Bronze Age	333
	Introduction	333
	Chronology	334
	Life and Death	339
	Settlement Organization	339
	Mortuary Data	345
	Economic Life	354
	Trade and Industry	359
	Metals and Metallurgy	362
	Raw Materials and Extraction	362
	Production and Movement of Metal Goods	364
	Craft Production	367
	Wood, Bone and Antler	367
	Salt	368
	Textiles	369
	Glass and Faience	371
	Transport	372
	Land Transport	372
	Water Transport	374
	Warfare	376
	Religion and Ritual	380
	Individual and Society	385
	The Wider Scene: Territory and Landscape	387
	Complex Societies in the Aegean	390
	References	399
	11 The Iron Age	410
	The Idea of the Iron Age	410
	Chronology	411
	Economy	414
	Trade	418
	Warfare	422
	Rise of Economic and Political Centers	428
	La Tne and Other New Styles	432
	Migration and Change	435
	Contacts with Literate Societies	437
	Linguistic and Ethnic Groups	438
	Origins of Urbanism	440
	Ritual	447
	The Roman Conquest	453
	References	457
	12 Conclusion	466
	References	468
	Glossary	470
	Persons Index	474
	Sites Index	488
	Cultures and Periods Index	495