Scanning Probe Microscopy in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology	4
	Part I Scanning Probe Microscopy Techniques	32
	1 Dynamic Force Microscopy and Spectroscopy Using the Frequency-Modulation Technique in Air and Liquids	33
	1.1 Introduction	33
	1.2 Basic Principles of the FM Technique	34
	1.2.1 The Equation of Motion	34
	1.2.2 Oscillation Behavior of a Self-Driven Cantilever	36
	1.2.3 Theory of FM Mode Including Tip–Sample Forces	37
	1.2.4 Measuring the Tip–Sample Interaction Force	39
	1.2.5 Experimental Comparison of the FM Mode with the Conventional Amplitude-Modulation-mode in Air	41
	1.3 Mapping of the Tip–Sample Interactions on DPPC Monolayers in Ambient Conditions	42
	1.4 Force Spectroscopy of Single Dextran Monomers in Liquid	45
	1.5 Summary	48
	Acknowledgements	49
	References	49
	2 Photonic Force Microscopy: From Femtonewton Force Sensing to Ultra-Sensitive Spectroscopy	52
	2.1 Introduction	53
	2.2 Principles of Optical Trapping	53
	2.2.1 Theoretical Background	53
	2.3 Experimental Implementation	58
	2.3.1 Optical Tweezers Set-up	58
	2.3.2 Brownian Motion and Force Sensing	60
	2.3.3 Optical Trapping of Linear Nanostructures	62
	2.4 Photonic Force Microscopy	68
	2.4.1 Bio-Nano-Imaging	68
	2.4.2 Bio-Force Sensing at the Nanoscale	71
	2.5 Raman Tweezers	74
	2.5.1 The Raman Effect	74
	2.5.2 Experimental Configuration	75
	2.5.3 Applications	77
	2.6 Conclusions	82
	References	82
	3 Polarization-Sensitive Tip-Enhanced Raman Scattering	86
	3.1 Introduction	86
	3.2 Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy	87
	3.2.1 Concept and Advantages	87
	3.2.2 Experimental Implementations of TERS with Side Illumination Optics	89
	3.2.3 Probes for Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy	90
	3.3 Polarized Raman Scattering from Cubic Crystals	93
	3.3.1 Model for Backscattering Raman Emission in c-Silicon	93
	3.3.2 Selection Rules	96
	3.4 Tip-Enhanced Field Modeling	96
	3.4.1 Phenomenological Model	96
	3.4.2 Numerical Models and Results	99
	3.5 Depolarization of Light Scattered by Metallic Tips	102
	3.6 Polarized Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy of Silicon Crystals	104
	3.6.1 Background Suppression	104
	3.6.2 Selective Enhancement of the Raman Modes Induced by Depolarization	109
	3.6.3 Evaluation of the Field Enhancement Factor	113
	3.7 Conclusions	114
	References	115
	4 Electrostatic Force Microscopy and Kelvin Force Microscopy as a Probe of the Electrostatic and Electronic Properties of Carbon Nanotubes	118
	4.1 Introduction	118
	4.2 Electrostatic Measurements at the Nanometer Scale	119
	4.2.1 Electrostatic Force Microscopy	119
	Principle	119
	Phase Shifts Versus Frequency Shifts	120
	Capacitive Versus Charge EFM Signals	121
	Modulated (1/2) EFM/FM-KFM	122
	4.2.2 Kelvin Force Microscopy	122
	Principle of Amplitude Modulation Kelvin Force Microscopy	122
	Open-Loop KFM or ac-EFM	123
	4.2.3 Lateral Resolution in EFM and KFM	123
	Side Capacitance Effects	123
	Carbon Nanotube Tip Probes	125
	4.3 Electrostatic Imaging of Carbon Nanotubes	126
	4.3.1 Capacitive Imaging of Carbon Nanotubes in Insulating Layers	127
	4.3.2 EFM Imaging of Carbon Nanotubes and DNA	129
	4.3.3 Imaging of Native Charges in Carbon Nanotube Loops	131
	4.4 Charge Injection Experiments in Carbon Nanotubes	132
	4.4.1 Charge Injection and Detection Techniques	132
	4.4.2 Experimental Illustration of EFM Signals	133
	Abrupt Discharging Processes in Carbon Nanotubes	135
	Charge Emission to the Oxide	137
	Continuous Discharge Processes	138
	Nanotube Charge Versus Oxide Charge	139
	4.4.3 Inner-Shell Charging of CNTs	141
	4.4.4 Electrostatic Interactions in SWCNTs	144
	4.5 Probing the Band Structure of Nanotubes on Insulators	145
	4.5.1 Imaging the Semiconductor/Metal Character of Carbon Nanotubes	145
	4.5.2 Imaging the Density of States of Carbon Nanotubes	147
	4.6 KFM Studies of Nanotube Devices	148
	4.6.1 Charge Transfers at Nanotube–Metal Interfaces	148
	4.6.2 Diffusive and Ballistic Transport in Carbon Nanotubes	150
	4.6.3 Kelvin Force Microscopy of CNTFETs	150
	Backgate Operation of CNTFETs	150
	KFM Determination of the lever arm of a CNTFET	151
	Hysteretic Behavior of CNTFETs and Surface Charges	153
	4.7 Conclusion	154
	Acknowledgement	155
	References	155
	5 Carbon Nanotube Atomic Force Microscopywith Applications to Biology and Electronics	158
	5.1 Carbon Nanotube Introduction	158
	5.2 Carbon Nanotube Synthesis	163
	5.3 Fabrication of Carbon Nanotube Atomic Force Microscopy Probes	164
	5.3.1 Fabrication of Carbon Nanotube Atomic Force Microscopy Probes by Gluing	164
	5.3.2 Mechanical Attachment in Scanning Electron Microscopy	164
	5.3.3 Fabrication of Carbon Nanotube Atomic Force Microscopy Probes by In Situ Pick-Up	166
	5.3.4 Miscellaneous Methods for Post-Growth Attachment of Carbon Nanotube to Atomic Force Microscopy Tips	166
	5.3.5 Metal Catalyst-Assisted Direct-Growth of Carbon Nanotube Atomic Force Microscopy Probes	166
	5.3.6 Post-Growth Attachment is Currently the Most Optimal Fabrication Process	168
	5.4 Characteristics and Characterization of Carbon Nanotube Atomic Force Microscopy Tips	170
	5.5 Applications of Carbon Nanotube Scanning Probe Microscopy	177
	5.5.1 Functionalization of Carbon Nanotube Tips for Chemical Force Microscopy	177
	5.5.2 Carbon Nanotube Friction Force Microscopy	181
	5.5.3 Carbon Nanotube Electric Force Microscopy	181
	5.5.4 Carbon Nanotube Scanning Tunneling Microscopy	183
	5.5.5 Carbon Nanotube Magnetic Force Microscopy	184
	5.5.6 Carbon Nanotube Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy	187
	5.5.7 Biological Applications of Carbon Nanotube Atomic Force Microscopy	188
	References	194
	6 Novel Strategies to Probe the Fluid Properties and Revealing its Hidden Elasticity	198
	6.1 Introduction	199
	6.2 Basic Theoretical Considerations: Conciliating Simple Liquid Approach to the Viscoelasticity Theory?	201
	6.2.1 Simple Liquid Description	201
	6.2.2 The Viscoelastic Approach	202
	6.3 Conventional Procedure to Determine the Dynamic Properties of Fluids	203
	6.3.1 Linear Rheology	203
	6.3.2 Non-Linear Rheology	205
	6.4 Unpredicted Phenomena and Unsolved Questions: Flow Instabilities, Non-Linearities, Shear Induced Transitions, Extra-Long Relaxation Times, Elasticity in the Liquid State	206
	6.5 From Macro to Micro and Nanofluidics	210
	6.6 Analysis of the Viscoelasticity Scanning Method	212
	6.7 The Question of the Boundary Conditions: Surface Effects, Wetting, and Slippage	215
	6.8 Novel Description of Conventional Fluids: from Viscous Liquids, Glass Formers to Entangled Polymers. Experiments in Narrow Gap Geometry: Extracting the Shear Elasticity in Viscous Fluids	216
	6.9 Tribology Meets Rheology. Novel Methods for the Determination of Bulk Dynamic Properties of a Soft Solid or a Fluidic Material	217
	6.10 Elasticity and Dimensionality in Fluids	221
	6.11 General Summary and Perspectives	221
	References	223
	7 Combining Atomic Force Microscopy and Depth-Sensing Instruments for the Nanometer-Scale Mechanical Characterization of Soft Matter	227
	7.1 Introduction	227
	7.2 Determining Elastic Modulus of Compliant Materials from Nanoindentations	229
	7.3 Determining Elastic Modulus of Compliant Materials from Nanoindentations	234
	7.4 Modulus Estimate of a Challenging Set of Samples	239
	References	248
	8 Static and Dynamic Structural Modeling Analysis of Atomic Force Microscope	252
	8.1 Introduction	253
	8.2 Working Principle and Modes	254
	8.3 Statics of Atomic Force Microscope Cantilever: Effective Stiffness Approach	257
	8.4 Electrostatic, Surface and Residual Stress Influence on the Atomic Force Microscope Initial Deflection	261
	8.5 Modeling Tip–Sample Contact	264
	8.6 Non-Contact Atomic Force Microscope Dynamics: Damping and Influence of Tip–Surface Interaction	269
	8.7 Dynamics of Intermittent Contact	275
	8.8 Summary	279
	Acknowledgement	280
	References	280
	9 Experimental Methods for the Calibration of Lateral Forces in Atomic Force Microscopy	285
	9.1 Introduction	286
	9.2 Basic Definitions and Relationships	290
	9.2.1 The Calibration Constants Involved in a Lateral Force Measurement	290
	9.2.2 Basic Relationships Involving the Calibration Constants	292
	9.2.3 The Lateral and the Normal Spring Constant of a Rectangular CL	294
	9.2.4 The Case of In-Plane Deformations	296
	9.3 Calibration of the Lateral Sensitivity of the PSD	297
	9.3.1 Available Methods	297
	Mirrored Substrate Method	297
	Geometrical Optics Method	299
	Lateral FDC Method	300
	Scanning Across a Vertical Step	301
	9.3.2 Optical Crosstalk	301
	9.4 Methods Relying on a Scanning Motion	303
	9.4.1 The Wedge Method	303
	9.4.2 Methods Involving the Normal Spring Constant	309
	9.5 Methods Relying on a Force Balance upon Contact with a Rigid Structure	310
	9.5.1 Normal Loading upon Contact with a Sloped Substrate	310
	9.5.2 Normal Loading with the Contact Point off the CL Long Axis	312
	9.5.3 Lateral Loading of a Horizontal Surface	314
	9.5.4 Lateral Loading of a Vertical Surface	316
	9.5.5 Mechanical Crosstalk	316
	Considering the Effect of an Offset in the Tip Position	317
	Considering the Effect of an Offset in the Position of the Shear Centre	318
	Eliminating the Mechanical Crosstalk Effect by Novel Design Concepts	320
	9.6 Methods Relying on a Force Balance Upon Contact with a Compliant Structure	320
	9.6.1 The Case of a Vertical Reference Beam	320
	9.6.2 The Case of a Horizontal Reference Beam	324
	9.6.3 The Case of a Mechanically Suspended Platform	325
	9.6.4 The Case of a Magnetically Suspended Platform	328
	9.7 Methods Relying on Torsional Resonancesof the CL	330
	9.8 Discussion	332
	9.9 Concluding Remarks	344
	References	345
	Part II Characterization	348
	10 Simultaneous Topography and Recognition Imaging	349
	10.1 Introduction	350
	10.2 AFM Tip Chemistry	352
	10.3 Operating Principles of TREC	355
	10.3.1 Half-Amplitude Versus Full-Amplitude Feedback	358
	10.3.2 Adjusting the Amplitude	361
	10.3.3 Adjusting the Driving Frequency	364
	10.3.4 Proofing the Specificity of the Detected Interactions	366
	Specificity Proof by Competitive Inhibition	366
	Specificity Proof by Amplitude Variation	368
	10.4 Applications of TREC: Single Proteins, Membranes,and Cells	368
	10.4.1 Antibiotin Antibodies Adsorbed to an Organic Semiconductor	368
	10.4.2 Bacterial S-Layer Lattices	370
	10.4.3 RBC Membranes	373
	10.4.4 Cells	375
	10.5 Conclusion	381
	References	381
	11 Structural and Mechanical Mechanisms of Ocular Tissues Probed by AFM	387
	11.1 Introduction	387
	11.2 Atomic Force Microscopy	388
	11.2.1 Principle of Operation	388
	Overview	388
	Imaging Mode	390
	Force Mode	390
	Force Mapping Mode	391
	11.2.2 Instrumentation	391
	11.2.3 Mechanical Measurements	392
	11.3 Atomic Force Microscopy in Ophthalmology	394
	11.3.1 Cornea	394
	Structure	394
	Corneal Refractive Surgery	398
	Corneal Transplant Surgery	398
	11.3.2 Contact Lenses	398
	Surface Characterization	398
	Biomechanical Properties	400
	11.3.3 Lens	400
	Structure	400
	Mechanics	402
	Artificial Lenses	403
	11.3.4 Retinal Tissue	405
	Structure	405
	Mechanical Properties	406
	11.4 Summary and Conclusions	407
	References	407
	12 Force-Extension and Force-Clamp AFM Spectroscopies in Investigating Mechanochemical Reactions and Mechanical Properties of Single Biomolecules	418
	12.1 Introduction	419
	12.2 Experimental Techniques for Measuring Displacements and Forces at the Single Molecule Level	420
	12.2.1 Centroid Tracking	420
	12.2.2 Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer	421
	12.2.3 Magnetic Tweezers	422
	12.2.4 Optical Traps	422
	12.2.5 Single Molecule AFM Force Spectroscopy	424
	12.3 Displacement and Force as Control Parameters in Small Systems	425
	12.3.1 Displacement Sensitivity and Resolution	425
	12.3.2 Force Sensitivity and Resolution	427
	12.4 AFM Force Spectroscopy with a Few Piconewton Sensitivity and at a Single Molecule Level	427
	12.4.1 Fingerprinting the Biomolecules	428
	12.4.2 Optimizing the AFM System	428
	12.5 FX-AFM Probes Mechanical Stability of Proteins and Polysaccharides	429
	12.5.1 Details of the FX Trace	429
	12.5.2 What can be Inferred from the FX Trace?	430
	12.5.3 Applications of FX Force Spectroscopy	431
	12.6 FC-AFM Probes the Details of Protein (Un)folding and Force-Induced Disulfide Reductions in Proteins	432
	12.6.1 Details of the FC Trace	432
	12.6.2 What can be Inferred from the FC Trace?	433
	12.6.3 Applications of the FC Spectroscopy	435
	12.7 Some Shortcomings of the FX/FC-AFM Spectroscopies	436
	References	437
	13 Multilevel Experimental and Modelling Techniques for Bioartificial Scaffolds and Matrices	447
	13.1 Scaffolds for Tissue-Engineering Applications	448
	13.2 Multi-Scale Computer-Aided Approach in Designing and Modelling Scaffold for Tissue Regeneration	451
	13.2.1 CATE: Computer-Aided Anatomical Tissue Representation, CT and MRI Techniques	451
	13.2.2 CATE: From Computer-Aided Anatomic 3D Reconstruction to Scaffolds Modelling and Design	454
	13.2.3 CATE: FEM and CFD-Based Scaffolds Modelling and Design Methods	470
	13.3 Understanding the Cell and Tissue Mechanics: A Multi-Scale Approach	486
	13.4 Experimental Techniques for Scaffolds Characterisations	490
	References	498
	14 Quantized Mechanics of Nanotubes and Bundles	509
	14.1 Introduction	509
	14.2 Quantized Fracture Mechanics Approaches	510
	14.3 Fracture Strength	514
	14.4 Impact Strength	515
	14.5 Hyper-Elasticity, Elastic-Plasticity, Fractal Cracks,and Finite Domains	516
	14.6 Fatigue Life	516
	14.7 Elasticity	517
	14.8 Atomistic Simulations	518
	14.9 Nanotensile Tests	521
	14.10 Thermodynamic Limit	524
	14.11 Hierarchical Simulations and Size Effects: from a Nanotube to a Megacable	525
	14.12 Conclusions	527
	References	527
	15 Spin and Charge Pairing Instabilities in Nanoclusters and Nanomaterials	529
	15.1 From Atoms to Solids	529
	15.1.1 Discreteness of Spectrum	531
	15.1.2 Electron Spectroscopy	532
	15.1.3 Electron Correlations in Clusters	533
	15.2 Transition Metal Oxides	535
	15.2.1 Spin-Charge Separation	535
	Doped Cuprates and Manganites	537
	Electronic Characteristics	537
	Phase Separation	538
	15.2.2 BCS Versus High Tc Superconductivity	540
	15.2.3 Localized Versus Itinerant Behavior	542
	15.3 Scanning Tunneling Experiments	543
	15.3.1 Pseudogap and Gap	543
	15.3.2 Two Energy (Temperature) Scales	545
	15.3.3 Coherent Versus Incoherent Condensation	546
	15.3.4 Modulated Pairs in Cuprates	548
	15.3.5 Inhomogeneities	548
	15.4 Bethe-Ansatz and GSCF Theories	550
	15.5 Hubbard Model	551
	15.5.1 GSCF Decoupling Scheme	551
	15.5.2 Canonical Transformation	553
	15.5.3 Order Parameter q(+)	554
	15.5.4 Quasi-Particle Spectrum	556
	15.5.5 Chemical Potential	557
	15.5.6 Ground State Phase Diagram	559
	15.5.7 GSCF Phase Diagram at T=0	561
	15.6 Bottom up Approach	562
	15.6.1 The Cluster Formalism	564
	15.7 General Methodology	564
	15.7.1 The Canonical Charge and Spin Gaps	565
	15.7.2 Quantum Critical Points: Level Crossings	567
	15.7.3 Symmetry Breaking	568
	15.7.4 The Charge and Spin Instabilities	570
	15.7.5 The Charge and Spin Susceptibility Peaks	572
	15.7.6 Charge and Spin Inhomogeneities	573
	15.7.7 The Coherent Charge and Spin Pairings	575
	15.8 Ground State Properties	576
	15.8.1 Bipartite Clusters	576
	15.8.2 Tetrahedrons	578
	15.8.3 Square Pyramids	581
	15.9 Phase T- Diagram	582
	15.9.1 Tetrahedrons at t=1	582
	15.10 Conclusion	585
	References	587
	16 Mechanical Properties of One-Dimensional Nanostructures	593
	16.1 Introduction	593
	16.2 Mechanical Property Measurements of One-Dimensional Nanostructures	594
	16.2.1 Electric Field-Induced Mechanical Resonance of One-Dimensional Nanostructures	595
	16.2.2 Axial Tensile Loading of One-Dimensional Nanostructures	596
	16.2.3 Three-Point Bending Test of Bridge-Suspended One-Dimensional Nanostructures	597
	16.2.4 Beam-Bending of One-End-Clamped One-Dimensional Nanostructures	598
	16.2.5 Instrumented Indentation of One-Dimensional Nanostructures	599
	16.2.6 Contact Modulation AFM-Based Techniques	600
	16.3 Contact-Resonance Atomic Force Microscopy	601
	16.3.1 Cantilever Dynamics in CR-AFM	602
	16.3.2 Contact Mechanics in CR-AFM	605
	16.3.3 Precision and Accuracy in CR-AFM Measurements (Dual-Reference Calibration Method for CR-AFM)	607
	16.4 Contact-Resonance Atomic Force Microscopy Applied to Elastic Modulus Measurements of 1D Nanostructures	609
	16.4.1 Normal Contact Stiffness of the Tip–Nanowire Contact	610
	16.4.2 Lateral Contact Stiffness of the Tip–Nanowire Contact	611
	16.5 Elastic Moduli of ZnO and Te Nanowires Measured by CR-AFM	612
	16.5.1 CR-AFM Measurements on ZnO Nanowires	612
	16.5.2 CR-AFM Measurements on Te Nanowires	618
	16.6 Surface Effects on the Mechanical Properties of 1D Nanostructures	623
	16.7 How Important Are the Mechanical Propertiesof 1D Nanostructures in Applications?	626
	References	627
	17 Colossal Permittivity in Advanced Functional Heterogeneous Materials: The Relevanceof the Local Measurements at Submicron Scale	634
	17.1 Introduction	635
	17.2 Physical Properties of Heterogeneous Materials	637
	17.2.1 Theory of the Dielectric Relaxation: Basic Principles	637
	Mobile Charge Carrier Contribution	638
	17.2.2 Separation of Charges: Maxwell/Wagner/Sillars Polarization	640
	Mesoscopic Scale: Separation of ChargesMaxwell/Wagner/Sillars (MW) Polarization	640
	Macroscopic Scale: Electrode Polarization	641
	17.2.3 Ultimate Theories on the Dielectric Relaxation	642
	The Presence of Inner Schottky Barriers	644
	Intrinsic and Extrinsic Mechanisms	646
	17.3 Conventional Macroscopic Techniques	648
	17.3.1 Basic Principles	648
	17.3.2 Dielectric Spectroscopy	649
	17.4 Scanning Probe Microscopy	650
	17.4.1 Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy on Giant- Materials	650
	17.4.2 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy on Giant- Materials	654
	17.4.3 SIM on Giant- Materials	657
	CCTO Polycrystalline Ceramics	657
	CCTO Single Crystal	662
	17.5 Summary and Conclusions	664
	References	665
	18 Controlling Wear on Nanoscale	668
	18.1 Introduction	669
	18.2 Molecular and Supra-Molecular Featuresfor Basic Wear Mechanism	672
	18.2.1 Abrasive Wear Mechanisms for Viscoelastic Materials	687
	18.3 Modelling Wear as an Activated Process	690
	18.3.1 Self-assembled Monolayers as a Frame for Modelling Wear in Viscoelastic Materials	696
	18.4 Conclusions	704
	References	705
	19 Contact Potential Difference Techniques as Probing Tools in Tribology and Surface Mapping	708
	19.1 Introduction	708
	19.2 Electron Work Function as a Parameterfor Surfaces Characterization	709
	19.3 Measurements of Contact Potential Difference	711
	19.3.1 Kelvin-Zisman Probe	712
	19.3.2 Nonvibrating Probe	713
	19.3.3 Ionization Probe	714
	19.3.4 Atomic Force Microscope in Kelvin Mode	715
	19.4 Typical Electron Work Function Responses	717
	19.4.1 Surface Deformation	717
	19.4.2 Friction	719
	19.4.3 Experimental Examples of Kelvin Technique Application	722
	19.5 Periodic Electron Work FunctionChanges During Friction	725
	19.5.1 Phenomenology	725
	19.6 Surface Mapping Examples	734
	19.7 Closure	737
	Acknowledgements	738
	References	738
	Part III Industrial Applications	742
	20 Modern Atomic Force Microscopy and Its Application to the Study of Genome Architecture	743
	20.1 Introduction: History of AFM Applications to Biological Macromolecules	744
	20.1.1 Nanometer Scale Imaging of DNA–Protein Complexes	744
	20.1.2 Visualization of Various Biological Macromolecules	745
	20.1.3 Challenges Toward Technical Advancement	746
	20.2 Trends in Biological AFM	747
	20.2.1 Analyses of Biological Macromolecules in Motion	747
	20.2.2 Measurement of Pico-Newton Mechanical Forces in Biological Systems	749
	20.2.3 Cantilever Modification and Application to Force Measurements	750
	20.2.4 Recognition Imaging: Integration of Force Measurements and Imaging	751
	20.3 Eukaryotic Genome Architecture	751
	20.3.1 Biophysical Properties of DNA and DNA-Binding Proteins	753
	20.3.2 Fundamental Structures of Eukaryotic Genomes	755
	20.3.3 Chromosome Structure in the Mitotic Phase	758
	20.3.4 Chromatin Structure Inside Nuclei	758
	20.4 Prokaryotic Genome Architecture	759
	20.4.1 Bacterial DNA-Binding Proteins	759
	20.4.2 Bacterial Genome Structure and Dynamics	761
	20.4.3 Archaeal DNA-Binding Proteins, Genome Structure, and Dynamics	762
	20.5 Conclusion/Perspectives	766
	References	766
	21 Near-Field Optical Litography	777
	21.1 Introduction	778
	21.2 Lithography: Principles and Materials	778
	21.2.1 Photolitography	780
	21.2.2 Electron Beam Lithography	782
	21.2.3 Ion Beam Lithography	783
	21.2.4 Materials	784
	21.3 Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy and Lithography	787
	21.3.1 Aperture and Apertureless SNOM Lithography	791
	21.3.2 Near-Field Optical Lithography Achievements on Azo – Polymers	801
	21.4 Conclusions	808
	References	808
	22 A New AFM-Based Lithography Method: Thermochemical Nanolithography	814
	22.1 Introduction	815
	22.2 Thermochemical Nanolithography	816
	22.3 Thermal Unmasking of Chemical Groups on a Polymer	818
	22.3.1 Unmasking Carboxylic Acid Groups	818
	22.3.2 Unmasking Amines Groups	821
	22.4 Two-Step Wettability Modification	821
	22.5 Covalent Functionalization and Molecular Recognition	824
	References	828
	23 Scanning Probe Alloying Nanolithography	831
	23.1 Brief Review of Nanolithography	831
	23.1.1 Introduction	831
	23.1.2 Probe-Based Lithography	833
	23.1.3 Probe Materials and Properties	834
	23.1.4 Probe Wear	835
	23.2 Nanoalloying and Nanocrystallization	837
	23.2.1 Background	837
	23.2.2 Synthesis of Nanoalloys	837
	23.3 Probe-Based Nanoalloying and Nanocrystalizations	838
	23.3.1 Background	838
	23.3.2 Scanning Probe-Based Alloying Nanolithography	839
	AFM Functionality as a Processing Tool	839
	Basic AFM Setup for Nanoprocessing	840
	Interfacial Interactions Between Tip and Substrate	840
	Mechanical Sliding	840
	Morphology of AFM Tips	841
	Chemical Analysis	842
	Morphological Analysis of ``Wear'' Tracks	843
	References	845
	24 Structuring the Surface of Crystallizable Polymers with an AFM Tip	851
	24.1 Introduction	851
	24.2 Experimental Part	854
	24.2.1 Characteristics of the Polymers Used	854
	24.2.2 Sample Preparation	855
	24.2.3 The Employed AFM Working Mode	855
	24.3 Melting of Confined, Nanometer-Sized Polymer Crystals	859
	24.3.1 Self-Assembly and Non-Periodic Patterns	859
	24.3.2 The AFM Set-Up Employed for Local Heating	861
	24.3.3 Local Melting of Confined Polymer Crystals	861
	24.4 Lowering the Crystal Nucleation Barrier by Deforming Polymer Chains	874
	24.4.1 Stretched Chains Resulting from Friction Transfer	874
	24.4.2 Stretched Chains Resulting from Rubbing with an AFM Tip	877
	24.5 Conclusions: Controlling Polymer Properties at a Molecular Scale	880
	References	881
	25 Application of Contact Mode AFM to ManufacturingProcesses	885
	25.1 Introduction	885
	25.2 Review of Atomic Force Microscope Capabilities Relevant to Manufacturing	887
	25.2.1 Evaluation of Mechanical Properties	887
	Hardness Testing	887
	Scratch Testing	892
	Wear Testing	896
	25.2.2 Friction/Lubricant Evaluation	900
	Review of Lubrication Fundamentals	900
	Friction Force Microscopy	903
	25.3 Applications to Metal Forming	904
	25.3.1 Evaluation of Lubricants	904
	25.3.2 Bulk and Sheet Forming	905
	25.3.3 Powder Processing	912
	25.4 Abrasive Machining Processes	914
	25.4.1 Grinding and Polishing	914
	25.4.2 Chemical Mechanical Polishing	915
	25.4.3 Miscellaneous Applications	919
	Nanolithography	919
	25.5 Polymer Processing	920
	25.6 Conclusions	922
	References	923
	26 Scanning Probe Microscopy as a Tool Applied to Agriculture	933
	26.1 Applications of Nanotechnology in Agriculture	933
	26.2 Applications of AFM in Agriculture	934
	26.2.1 Introduction	934
	26.2.2 Some Examples and Results of Agricultural Research	934
	Nanostructured Films	934
	Structures Containing Nanoparticles and Nanofibers	940
	Sensors and Biosensors	941
	Direct Measurement of Interaction Forces	945
	Natural Fibers and Soil Science	950
	Other Applications	954
	26.3 Conclusions and Perspectives	958
	References	958
	Index	963