Title Pages	2
	Preface	6
	List of Authors	8
	Contents	18
	List of Abbreviations	24
	A Fundamentals of Metrology and Testing	32
	1 Introduction to Metrology and Testing	33
	1.1 Methodologies of Measurement and Testing	33
	1.1.1 Measurement	33
	1.1.2 Testing	35
	1.1.3 Conformity Assessment and Accreditation	37
	1.2 Overview of Metrology	39
	1.2.1 The Meter Convention	39
	1.2.2 Categories of Metrology	39
	1.2.3 Metrological Units	41
	1.2.4 Measurement Standards	42
	1.3 Fundamentals of Materials Characterization	43
	1.3.1 Nature of Materials	43
	1.3.2 Types of Materials	45
	1.3.3 Scale of Materials	46
	1.3.4 Properties of Materials	47
	1.3.5 Performance of Materials	49
	1.3.6 Metrology of Materials	50
	References	52
	2 Metrology Principles and Organization	53
	2.1 The Roots and Evolution of Metrology	53
	2.2 BIPM: The Birth of the Metre Convention	55
	2.3 BIPM: The First 75 Years	56
	2.4 Quantum Standards: A Metrological Revolution	58
	2.5 Regional Metrology Organizations	59
	2.6 Metrological Traceability	59
	2.7 Mutual Recognition of NMI Standards: The CIPM MRA	60
	2.7.1 The Essential Points of the MRA	60
	2.7.2 The Key Comparison Database (KCDB)	61
	2.7.3 Take Up of the CIPM MRA	61
	2.8 Metrology in the 21st Century	62
	2.8.1 Industrial Challenges	62
	2.8.2 Chemistry, Pharmacy, and Medicine	63
	2.8.3 Environment, Public Services, and Infrastructures	64
	2.9 The SI System and New Science	64
	References	67
	3 Quality in Measurement and Testing	68
	3.1 Sampling	69
	3.1.1 Quality of Sampling	69
	3.1.2 Judging Whether Strategies of Measurement and Sampling Are Appropriate	71
	3.1.3 Options for the Design of Sampling	72
	3.2 Traceability of Measurements	74
	3.2.1 Introduction	74
	3.2.2 Terminology	75
	3.2.3 Traceability of Measurement Results to SI Units	75
	3.2.4 Calibration of Measuring and Testing Devices	77
	3.2.5 The Increasing Importance of Metrological Traceability	78
	3.3 Statistical Evaluation of Results	79
	3.3.1 Fundamental Concepts	79
	3.3.2 Calculations and Software	82
	3.3.3 Statistical Methods	83
	3.3.4 Statistics for Quality Control	95
	3.4 Uncertainty and Accuracy of Measurement and Testing	97
	3.4.1 General Principles	97
	3.4.2 Practical Example: Accuracy Classes of Measuring Instruments	98
	3.4.3 Multiple Measurement Uncertainty Components	100
	3.4.4 Typical Measurement Uncertainty Sources	101
	3.4.5 Random and Systematic Effects	102
	3.4.6 Parameters Relating to Measurement Uncertainty: Accuracy, Trueness, and Precision	102
	3.4.7 Uncertainty Evaluation: Interlaboratory and Intralaboratory Approaches	104
	3.5 Validation	107
	3.5.1 Definition and Purpose of Validation	107
	3.5.2 Validation, Uncertainty of Measurement, Traceability, and Comparability	108
	3.5.3 Practice of Validation	110
	3.6 Interlaboratory Comparisons and Proficiency Testing	116
	3.6.1 The Benefit of Participation in PTs	117
	3.6.2 Selection of Providers and Sources of Information	117
	3.6.3 Evaluation of the Results	121
	3.6.4 Influence of Test Methods Used	122
	3.6.5 Setting Criteria	123
	3.6.6 Trends	123
	3.6.7 What Can Cause Unsatisfactory Performance in a PT or ILC?	124
	3.6.8 Investigation of Unsatisfactory Performance	124
	3.6.9 Corrective Actions	125
	3.6.10 Conclusions	126
	3.7 Reference Materials	126
	3.7.1 Introduction and Definitions	126
	3.7.2 Classification	127
	3.7.3 Sources of Information	128
	3.7.4 Production and Distribution	129
	3.7.5 Selection and Use	130
	3.7.6 Activities of International Organizations	133
	3.7.7 The Development of RM Activities and Application Examples	134
	3.7.8 Reference Materials for Mechanical Testing, General Aspects	136
	3.7.9 Reference Materials for Hardness Testing	138
	3.7.10 Reference Materials for Impact Testing	139
	3.7.11 Reference Materials for Tensile Testing	143
	3.8 Reference Procedures	145
	3.8.1 Framework: Traceability and Reference Values	145
	3.8.2 Terminology: Concepts and Definitions	147
	3.8.3 Requirements: Measurement Uncertainty, Traceability, and Acceptance	148
	3.8.4 Applications for Reference and Routine Laboratories	150
	3.8.5 Presentation: Template for Reference Procedures	152
	3.8.6 International Networks: CIPM and VAMAS	152
	3.8.7 Related Terms and Definitions	155
	3.9 Laboratory Accreditation and Peer Assessment	155
	3.9.1 Accreditation of Conformity Assessment Bodies	155
	3.9.2 Measurement Competence: Assessment and Confirmation	156
	3.9.3 Peer Assessment Schemes	159
	3.9.4 Certification or Registration of Laboratories	159
	3.10 International Standards and Global Trade	159
	3.10.1 International Standards and International Trade: The Example of Europe	160
	3.10.2 Conformity Assessment	162
	3.11 Human Aspects in a Laboratory	163
	3.11.1 Processes to Enhance Competence - Understanding Processes	163
	3.11.2 The Principle of Controlled Input and Output	164
	3.11.3 The Five Major Elements for Consideration in a Laboratory	165
	3.11.4 Internal Audits	165
	3.11.5 Conflicts	166
	3.11.6 Conclusions	166
	3.12 Further Reading: Books and Guides	167
	References	167
	B Chemical and Microstructural Analysis	171
	4 Analytical Chemistry	172
	4.1 Bulk Chemical Characterization	172
	4.1.1 Mass Spectrometry	172
	4.1.2 Molecular Spectrometry	174
	4.1.3 Atomic Spectrometry	183
	4.1.4 Nuclear Analytical Methods	188
	4.1.5 Chromatographic Methods	195
	4.1.6 Classical Chemical Methods	200
	4.2 Microanalytical Chemical Characterization	206
	4.2.1 Analytical Electron Microscopy (AEM)	206
	4.2.2 Electron Probe X-ray Microanalysis	207
	4.2.3 Scanning Auger Electron Microscopy	210
	4.2.4 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope	212
	4.2.5 Infrared and Raman Microanalysis	213
	4.3 Inorganic Analytical Chemistry: Short Surveys of Analytical Bulk Methods	216
	4.3.1 Inorganic Mass Spectrometry	217
	4.3.2 Optical Atomic Spectrometry	219
	4.3.3 X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRF)	219
	4.3.4 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) and Photon Activation Analysis (PAA)	221
	4.4 Compound and Molecular Specific Analysis: Short Surveys of Analytical Methods	222
	4.5 National Primary Standards - An Example to Establish Metrological Traceability in Elemental Analysis	225
	References	226
	5 Nanoscopic Architecture and Microstructure	231
	5.1 Fundamentals	237
	5.1.1 Diffraction and Scattering Methods	237
	5.1.2 {Microscopy and Topography}	241
	5.1.3 Spectroscopy	252
	5.2 Crystalline and Amorphous Structure Analysis	258
	5.2.1 Long-Range Order Analysis	258
	5.2.2 Medium-Range Order Analysis	261
	5.2.3 Short-Range Order Analysis	263
	5.3 Lattice Defects and Impurities Analysis	265
	5.3.1 Point Defects and Impurities	266
	5.3.2 Extended Defects	278
	5.4 Molecular Architecture Analysis	284
	5.4.1 Structural Determination by X-Ray Diffraction	284
	5.4.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Analysis	285
	5.4.3 Chemophysical Analysis	293
	5.5 Texture, Phase Distributions, and Finite Structures Analysis	295
	5.5.1 Texture Analysis	295
	5.5.2 Microanalysis of Elements and Phases	297
	5.5.3 Diffraction Analysis of Fine Structures	299
	5.5.4 Quantitative Stereology	300
	References	303
	6 Surface and Interface Characterization	306
	6.1 Surface Chemical Analysis	307
	6.1.1 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES)	310
	6.1.2 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)	319
	6.1.3 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)	323
	6.1.4 Conclusions	332
	6.2 Surface Topography Analysis	333
	6.2.1 Stylus Profilometry	337
	6.2.2 Optical Techniques	341
	6.2.3 Scanning Probe Microscopy	343
	6.2.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy	345
	6.2.5 Parametric Methods	346
	6.2.6 Applications and Limitations of Surface Measurement	347
	6.2.7 Traceability	347
	6.2.8 Summary	350
	References	351
	C Materials Properties Measurement	361
	7 Mechanical Properties	362
	7.1 Elasticity	363
	7.1.1 Development of Elasticity Theory	363
	7.1.2 Definition of Stress and Strain, and Relationships Between Them	364
	7.1.3 Measurement of Elastic Constants in Static Experiments	367
	7.1.4 Dynamic Methods of Determining Elastic Constants	372
	7.1.5 Instrumented Indentation as a Method of Determining Elastic Constants	375
	7.2 Plasticity	378
	7.2.1 Fundamentals of Plasticity	378
	7.2.2 Mechanical Loading Modes Causing Plastic Deformation	380
	7.2.3 Standard Methods of Measuring Plastic Properties	381
	7.2.4 Novel Test Developments for Plasticity	388
	7.3 Hardness	389
	7.3.1 Conventional Hardness Test Methods (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers and Knoop)	391
	7.3.2 Selecting a Conventional Hardness Test Method and Hardness Scale	397
	7.3.3 Measurement Uncertainty in Hardness Testing (HR, HBW, HV, HK)	399
	7.3.4 Instrumented Indentation Test (IIT)	401
	7.4 Strength	411
	7.4.1 Quasistatic Loading	412
	7.4.2 Dynamic Loading	421
	7.4.3 Temperature and Strain-Rate Effects	424
	7.4.4 Strengthening Mechanisms for Crystalline Materials	425
	7.4.5 Environmental Effects	427
	7.4.6 Interface Strength: Adhesion Measurement Methods	428
	7.5 Fracture Mechanics	431
	7.5.1 Fundamentals of Fracture Mechanics	431
	7.5.2 Fracture Toughness	433
	7.5.3 Fatigue Crack Propagation Rate	442
	7.5.4 Fractography	447
	7.6 Permeation and Diffusion	449
	7.6.1 Gas Transport: Steady-State Permeation	450
	7.6.2 Kinetic Measurement	452
	7.6.3 Experimental Measurement of Permeability	454
	7.6.4 Gas Flux Measurement	456
	7.6.5 Experimental Measurement of Gas and Vapor Sorption	459
	7.6.6 Method Evaluations	463
	7.6.7 Future Projections	465
	References	465
	8 Thermal Properties	476
	8.1 Thermal Conductivity and Specific Heat Capacity	477
	8.1.1 Steady-State Methods	479
	8.1.2 Transient Methods	481
	8.1.3 Calorimetric Methods	484
	8.2 Enthalpy of Phase Transition, Adsorption and Mixing	485
	8.2.1 Adiabatic Calorimetry	487
	8.2.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry	488
	8.2.3 Drop Calorimetry	489
	8.2.4 Solution Calorimetry	490
	8.2.5 Combustion Calorimetry	491
	8.3 Thermal Expansion and Thermomechanical Analysis	492
	8.3.1 Optical Methods	492
	8.3.2 Push Rod Dilatometry	493
	8.3.3 Thermomechanical Analysis	493
	8.4 Thermogravimetry	494
	8.5 Temperature Sensors	494
	8.5.1 Temperature and Temperature Scale	494
	8.5.2 Use of Thermometers	497
	8.5.3 Resistance Thermometers	498
	8.5.4 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers	500
	8.5.5 Thermocouples	501
	8.5.6 Radiation Thermometers	502
	8.5.7 Cryogenic Temperature Sensors	503
	References	505
	9 Electrical Properties	507
	9.1 Electrical Materials	508
	9.1.1 Conductivity and Resistivity of Metals	508
	9.1.2 Superconductivity	509
	9.1.3 Semiconductors	510
	9.1.4 Conduction in Polymers	512
	9.1.5 Ionic Conductors	512
	9.1.6 Dielectricity	513
	9.1.7 Ferroelectricity and Piezoelectricity	514
	9.2 Electrical Conductivity of Metallic Materials	515
	9.2.1 Scale of Electrical Conductivity	515
	9.2.2 Principal Methods	516
	9.2.3 DC Conductivity, Calibration of Reference Materials	518
	9.2.4 AC Conductivity, Calibration of Reference Materials	518
	9.2.5 Superconductivity	519
	9.3 Electrolytic Conductivity	520
	9.3.1 Scale of Conductivity	520
	9.3.2 Basic Principles	521
	9.3.3 The Measurement of the Electrolytic Conductivity	523
	9.4 Semiconductors	529
	9.4.1 Conductivity Measurements	529
	9.4.2 Mobility Measurements	532
	9.4.3 Dopant and Carrier Concentration Measurements	535
	9.4.4 I-V Breakdown Mechanisms	540
	9.4.5 Deep Level Characterization and Minority Carrier Lifetime	541
	9.4.6 Contact Resistances of Metal-Semiconductor Contacts	545
	9.5 Measurement of Dielectric Materials Properties	548
	9.5.1 Dielectric Permittivity	549
	9.5.2 Measurement of Permittivity	551
	9.5.3 Measurement of Permittivity Using Microwave Network Analysis	554
	9.5.4 Uncertainty Considerations	558
	9.5.5 Conclusion	559
	References	559
	10 Magnetic Properties	563
	10.1 Magnetic Materials	564
	10.1.1 Diamagnetism, Paramagnetism, and Ferromagnetism	564
	10.1.2 Antiferromagnetism, Ferrimagnetism and Noncollinear Magnetism	565
	10.1.3 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Properties	566
	10.1.4 Bulk Soft and Hard Materials	566
	10.1.5 Magnetic Thin Films	566
	10.1.6 Time-Dependent Changes in Magnetic Properties	567
	10.1.7 Definition of Magnetic Properties and Respective Measurement Methods	567
	10.2 Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials: (Standard) Measurement Techniques for Properties Related to the B(H) Loop	568
	10.2.1 Introduction	568
	10.2.2 Properties of Hard Magnetic Materials	571
	10.2.3 Properties of Soft Magnetic Materials	577
	10.3 Magnetic Characterization in a Pulsed Field Magnetometer (PFM)	589
	10.3.1 Industrial Pulsed Field Magnetometer	590
	10.3.2 Errors in a PFM	591
	10.3.3 Calibration	595
	10.3.4 Hysteresis Measurements on Hard Magnetic Materials	597
	10.3.5 Anisotropy Measurement	598
	10.3.6 Summary: Advantages and Disadvantages of PFM	601
	10.4 Properties of Magnetic Thin Films	601
	10.4.1 Saturation Magnetization, Spontaneous Magnetization	601
	10.4.2 Magneto-Resistive Effects	605
	References	607
	11 Optical Properties	609
	11.1 Fundamentals of Optical Spectroscopy	610
	11.1.1 Light Source	610
	11.1.2 Photosensors	612
	11.1.3 Wavelength Selection	614
	11.1.4 Reflection and Absorption	616
	11.1.5 Luminescence and Lasers	620
	11.1.6 Scattering	624
	11.2 Microspectroscopy	627
	11.2.1 Optical Microscopy	627
	11.2.2 Near-field Optical Microscopy	628
	11.2.3 Cathodoluminescence (SEM-CL)	629
	11.3 Magnetooptical Measurement	631
	11.3.1 Faraday and Kerr Effects	631
	11.3.2 Application to Magnetic Flux Imaging	632
	11.4 Nonlinear Optics and Ultrashort Pulsed Laser Application	636
	11.4.1 Nonlinear Susceptibility	636
	11.4.2 Ultrafast Pulsed Laser	640
	11.4.3 Time-Resolved Spectroscopy	642
	11.4.4 Nonlinear Spectroscopy	645
	11.4.5 Terahertz Time-Domain Spectroscopy	647
	11.5 Fiber Optics	648
	11.5.1 Fiber Dispersion and Attenuation	649
	11.5.2 Nonlinear Optical Properties	652
	11.5.3 Fiber Bragg Grating	654
	11.5.4 Fiber Amplifiers and Lasers	657
	11.5.5 Miscellaneous Fibers	660
	11.6 Evaluation Technologies for Optical Disk Memory Materials	663
	11.6.1 Evaluation Technologies for Phase-Change Materials	663
	11.6.2 Evaluation Technologies for MO Materials	669
	11.7 Optical Sensing	671
	11.7.1 Distance Measurement	671
	11.7.2 Displacement Measurement	673
	11.7.3 3-D Shape Measurement	673
	11.7.4 Flow Measurement	674
	11.7.5 Temperature Measurement	675
	11.7.6 Optical Sensing for the Human Body	677
	References	678
	D Materials Performance Testing	686
	12 Corrosion	687
	12.1 Background	688
	12.1.1 Classification of Corrosion	689
	12.1.2 Corrosion Testing	690
	12.2 Conventional Electrochemical Test Methods	691
	12.2.1 Principles of Electrochemical Measurements and Definitions	691
	12.2.2 Some Definitions	693
	12.2.3 Electrochemical Thermodynamics	694
	12.2.4 Complex Formation	696
	12.2.5 Electrochemical Kinetics	696
	12.2.6 The Charge-Transfer Overvoltage	696
	12.2.7 Elementary Reaction Steps in Sequence,the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction	699
	12.2.8 Two Different Reactions at One Electrode Surface	701
	12.2.9 Local Elements	703
	12.2.10 Diffusion Control of Electrode Processes	704
	12.2.11 Rotating Disc Electrode (RDE) and Rotating Ring-Disc Electrode (RRDE)	706
	12.2.12 Ohmic Drops	709
	12.2.13 Measurement of Ohmic Drops and Potential Profiles Within Electrolytes	710
	12.2.14 Nonstationary Methods, Pulse Measurements	712
	12.2.15 Concluding Remarks	715
	12.3 Novel Electrochemical Test Methods	715
	12.3.1 Electrochemical Noise Analysis	715
	12.4 Exposure and On-Site Testing	719
	12.5 Corrosion Without Mechanical Loading	719
	12.5.1 Uniform Corrosion	720
	12.5.2 Nonuniform and Localized Corrosion	721
	12.6 Corrosion with Mechanical Loading	725
	12.6.1 Stress Corrosion	726
	12.6.2 Corrosion Fatigue	729
	12.7 Hydrogen-Induced Stress Corrosion Cracking	734
	12.7.1 Electrochemical Processes	735
	12.7.2 Theories of H-Induced Stress Corrosion Cracking	736
	12.7.3 Environment and Material Parameters	737
	12.7.4 Fractographic and Mechanical Effects of HISCC	737
	12.7.5 Test Methods	738
	12.8 High-Temperature Corrosion	738
	12.8.1 Main Parameters in High-Temperature Corrosion	738
	12.8.2 Test Standards or Guidelines	739
	12.8.3 Mass Change Measurements	741
	12.8.4 Special High-Temperature Corrosion Tests	749
	12.8.5 Post-Test Evaluation of Test Pieces	751
	12.8.6 Concluding Remarks	752
	12.9 Inhibitor Testing and Monitoring of Efficiency	752
	12.9.1 Investigation and Testing of Inhibitors	753
	12.9.2 Monitoring of Inhibitor Efficiency	754
	12.9.3 Monitoring Inhibition from Corrosion Rates	756
	References	758
	13 Friction and Wear	762
	13.1 Definitions and Units	762
	13.1.1 Definitions	763
	13.1.2 Types of Wear	763
	13.1.3 Units for Wear	764
	13.2 Selection of Friction and Wear Tests	766
	13.2.1 Approach to Tribological Testing	766
	13.2.2 Test Parameters	767
	13.2.3 Interaction with Other Degradation Mechanisms	769
	13.2.4 Experimental Planning and Presentation of Results	769
	13.3 Tribological Test Methods	770
	13.3.1 Sliding Motion	770
	13.3.2 Rolling Motion	770
	13.3.3 Abrasion	771
	13.3.4 Erosion by Solid Particles	772
	13.3.5 Scratch Testing	772
	13.4 Friction Measurement	773
	13.4.1 Friction Force Measurement	773
	13.4.2 Strain Gauge Load Cells and Instrumentation	773
	13.4.3 Piezoelectric Load Sensors	774
	13.4.4 Other Force Transducers	774
	13.4.5 Sampling and Digitization Errors	775
	13.4.6 Calibration	775
	13.4.7 Presentation of Results	777
	13.5 Quantitative Assessment of Wear	778
	13.5.1 Direct and Indirect Quantities	778
	13.5.2 Mass Loss	778
	13.5.3 Dimensional Change	778
	13.5.4 Volume Loss	779
	13.5.5 Other Methods	781
	13.5.6 Errors and Reproducibility in Wear Testing	781
	13.6 Characterization of Surfaces and Debris	783
	13.6.1 Sample Preparation	783
	13.6.2 Microscopy, Profilometry and Microanalysis	784
	13.6.3 Wear Debris Analysis	786
	References	786
	14 Biogenic Impact on Materials	788
	14.1 Modes of Materials - Organisms Interactions	789
	14.1.1 Biodeterioration/Biocorrosion	789
	14.1.2 Biodegradation	790
	14.1.3 Summary	790
	14.1.4 Role of Biocides	790
	14.2 Biological Testing of Wood	793
	14.2.1 Attack by Microorganisms	795
	14.2.2 Attack by Insects	800
	14.3 Testing of Organic Materials	808
	14.3.1 Biodeterioration	808
	14.3.2 Biodegradation	810
	14.3.3 Paper and Textiles	822
	14.4 Biological Testing of Inorganic Materials	830
	14.4.1 Inorganic Materials Subject to Biological Attack	830
	14.4.2 The Mechanisms of Biological Attack on Inorganic Materials	832
	14.4.3 Organisms Acting on Inorganic Materials	833
	14.4.4 Biogenic Impact on Rocks	837
	14.4.5 Biogenic Impact on Metals, Glass, Pigments	842
	14.4.6 Control and Prevention of Biodeterioration	843
	14.5 Coatings and Coating Materials	845
	14.5.1 Susceptibility of Coated Surfaces to Fungal and Algal Growth	845
	14.6 Reference Organisms	852
	14.6.1 Chemical and Physiological Characterization	852
	14.6.2 Genomic Characterization	853
	References	857
	15 Material-Environment Interactions	864
	15.1 Materials and the Environment	864
	15.1.1 Environmental Impact of Materials	864
	15.1.2 Environmental Impact on Polymeric Materials	867
	15.2 Emissions from Materials	879
	15.2.1 General	879
	15.2.2 Types of Emissions	879
	15.2.3 Influences on the Emission Behavior	880
	15.2.4 Emission Test Chambers	881
	15.2.5 Air Sampling from Emission Test Chambers	882
	15.2.6 Identification and Quantification of Emissions	883
	15.2.7 Time Behavior and Ageing	885
	15.2.8 Secondary Emissions	888
	15.3 Fire Physics and Chemistry	888
	15.3.1 Ignition	888
	15.3.2 Combustion	892
	15.3.3 Fire Temperatures	894
	15.3.4 Materials Subject to Fire	896
	15.3.5 Fire Testing and Fire Regulations	897
	References	902
	16 Performance Control: Nondestructive Testing and Reliability Evaluation	906
	16.1 Nondestructive Evaluation	907
	16.1.1 Visual Inspection	907
	16.1.2 Ultrasonic Examination: Physical Background	908
	16.1.3 Application Areas of Ultrasonic Examination	913
	16.1.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection	916
	16.1.5 Liquid Penetrant Inspection	917
	16.1.6 Eddy-Current Testing	918
	16.2 Industrial Radiology	919
	16.2.1 Fundamentals of Radiology	920
	16.2.2 Particle-Based Radiological Methods	925
	16.2.3 Film Radiography	926
	16.2.4 Digital Radiological Methods	927
	16.2.5 Applications of Radiology for Public Safety and Security	933
	16.3 Computerized Tomography - Application to Organic Materials	934
	16.3.1 Principles of X-ray Tomography	934
	16.3.2 Detection of Macroscopic Defects in Materials	936
	16.3.3 Detection of the Damage of Composites on the Mesoscale: Application Examples	937
	16.3.4 Observation of Elastomers at the Nanoscale	938
	16.3.5 Application Assessment of CT with a Medical Scanner	939
	16.4 Computerized Tomography - Application to Inorganic Materials	940
	16.4.1 High-Energy CT	940
	16.4.2 High-Resolution CT	940
	16.4.3 Synchrotron CT	941
	16.4.4 Dimensional Control of Engine Components	942
	16.5 Computed Tomography - Application to Composites and Microstructures	946
	16.5.1 Refraction Effect	946
	16.5.2 Refraction Techniques Applying X-ray Tubes	947
	16.5.3 3-D Synchrotron Refraction Computed Tomography	948
	16.5.4 Conclusion	951
	16.6 Structural Health Monitoring - Embedded Sensors	951
	16.6.1 Basics of Structural Health Monitoring	951
	16.6.2 Fiber-Optic Sensing Techniques	954
	16.6.3 Piezoelectric Sensing Techniques	964
	16.7 Characterization of Reliability	968
	16.7.1 Statistical Treatment of Reliability	970
	16.7.2 Weibull Analysis	971
	16.7.3 Reliability Test Strategies	975
	16.7.4 Accelerated Lifetime Testing	978
	16.7.5 System Reliability	981
	16.7.6 System Reliability Estimation in Practice	983
	16.A Appendix	986
	References	987
	E Modeling and Simulation Methods	992
	17 Molecular Dynamics	993
	17.1 Basic Idea of Molecular Dynamics	993
	17.1.1 Time Evolution of the Equations of Motion	993
	17.1.2 Constraints on the Simulation Systems	996
	17.1.3 Control of Temperature and Pressure	998
	17.1.4 Interaction Potentials	1003
	17.1.5 Physical Observables	1005
	17.2 Diffusionless Transformation	1006
	17.2.1 Martensitic Transformation	1006
	17.2.2 Transformations in Nanoclusters	1009
	17.2.3 Solid-State Amorphization	1011
	17.3 Rapid Solidification	1013
	17.3.1 Glass-Formation by Liquid Quenching	1013
	17.3.2 Annealing of Amorphous Alloys	1017
	17.3.3 Glass-Forming Ability of Alloy Systems	1022
	17.4 Diffusion	1024
	17.4.1 Diffusion in Crystalline Phases	1024
	17.4.2 Diffusion in Liquid and Glassy Phases	1026
	17.5 Summary	1028
	References	1028
	18 Continuum Constitutive Modeling	1031
	18.1 Phenomenological Viscoplasticity	1031
	18.1.1 General Models of Viscoplasticity	1031
	18.1.2 Inelasticity Models	1033
	18.1.3 Model Performance	1034
	18.2 Material Anisotropy	1036
	18.2.1 Description of Material Anisotropy	1036
	18.2.2 Initial Anisotropy	1037
	18.2.3 Induced Anisotropy	1039
	18.3 Metallothermomechanical Coupling	1041
	18.3.1 Phase Changes	1041
	18.3.2 Numerical Methodology	1043
	18.3.3 Applications to Heat Treatment and Metal Forming	1043
	18.4 Crystal Plasticity	1044
	18.4.1 Single-Crystal Model	1044
	18.4.2 Grain Boundary Sliding	1047
	18.4.3 Inhomogeneous Deformation	1047
	References	1048
	19 Finite Element and Finite Difference Methods	1051
	19.1 Discretized Numerical Schemes for FEM and FDM	1053
	19.2 Basic Derivations in FEM and FDM	1055
	19.2.1 Finite Difference Method (FDM)	1055
	19.2.2 Finite Element Method (FEM)	1056
	19.3 The Equivalence of FEM and FDM Methods	1059
	19.4 From Mechanics to Mathematics: Equilibrium Equations and Partial Differential Equations	1060
	19.4.1 Heat Conduction Problem in the Two-Dimensional Case	1061
	19.4.2 Elastic Solid Problem in the Three-Dimensional Case	1061
	19.5 From Mathematics to Mechanics: Characteristic of Partial Differential Equations	1065
	19.5.1 Elliptic Type	1066
	19.5.2 Parabolic Type	1066
	19.5.3 Hyperbolic Type	1066
	19.6 Time Integration for Unsteady Problems	1067
	19.6.1 FDM	1067
	19.6.2 FEM	1068
	19.7 Multidimensional Case	1069
	19.7.1 Finite Difference Method	1069
	19.7.2 Finite Element Method	1070
	19.8 Treatment of the Nonlinear Case	1073
	19.9 Advanced Topics in FEM and FDM	1073
	19.9.1 Preprocessing	1073
	19.9.2 Postprocessing	1074
	19.9.3 Numerical Error	1074
	19.9.4 Relatives of FEM and FDM	1075
	19.9.5 Matrix Calculation and Parallel Computations	1075
	19.9.6 Multiscale Method	1077
	19.10 Free Codes	1077
	References	1077
	20 The CALPHAD Method	1079
	20.1 Outline of the CALPHAD Method	1080
	20.1.1 Description of Gibbs Energy	1080
	20.1.2 Equilibrium Conditions	1082
	20.1.3 Evaluation of Thermodynamic Parameters	1083
	20.2 Incorporation of the First-principles Calculations into the CALPHAD Approach	1084
	20.2.1 Outline of the First-principles Calculations	1084
	20.2.2 Gibbs Energies of Solution Phases Derived by the First-principles Calculations	1085
	20.2.3 Thermodynamic Analysis of the Gibbs Energies Based on the First-principles Calculations	1089
	20.2.4 Construction of Stable and Metastable Phase Diagrams	1089
	20.2.5 Application to More Complex Cases	1091
	20.3 Prediction of Thermodynamic Properties of Compound Phases with First-principles Calculations	1097
	20.3.1 Thermodynamic Analysis of the Fe-Al-C System	1097
	20.3.2 Thermodynamic Analysis of the Co-Al-C and Ni-Al-C Systems	1101
	References	1108
	21 Phase Field Approach	1109
	21.1 Basic Concept of the Phase-Field Method	1110
	21.2 Total Free Energy of Microstructure	1111
	21.2.1 Chemical Free Energy	1111
	21.2.2 Gradient Energy	1113
	21.2.3 Elastic Strain Energy	1115
	21.2.4 Free Energy for Ferromagnetic and Ferroelectric Phase Transition	1119
	21.3 Solidification	1120
	21.3.1 Pure Metal	1120
	21.3.2 Alloy	1122
	21.4 Diffusion-Controlled Phase Transformation	1123
	21.4.1 Cahn-Hilliard Diffusion Equation	1123
	21.4.2 Spinodal Decomposition and Ostwald Ripening	1125
	21.5 Structural Phase Transformation	1126
	21.5.1 Martensitic Transformation	1126
	21.5.2 Tweed-Like Structure and Twin Domain Formations	1126
	21.5.3 Twin Domain Growth Under External Stress and Magnetic Field	1127
	21.6 Microstructure Evolution	1128
	21.6.1 Grain Growth and Recrystallization	1128
	21.6.2 Ferroelectric Domain Formation with a Dipole-Dipole Interaction	1129
	21.6.3 Modeling Complex Nanogranular Structure Formation	1130
	21.6.4 Dislocation Dynamics	1130
	21.6.5 Crack Propagation	1131
	References	1132
	22 Monte Carlo Simulation	1134
	22.1 Fundamentals of the Monte Carlo Method	1134
	22.1.1 Boltzmann Weight	1135
	22.1.2 Monte Carlo Technique	1135
	22.1.3 Random Numbers	1136
	22.1.4 Finite-Size Effects	1137
	22.1.5 Nonequilibrium Relaxation Method	1138
	22.2 Improved Algorithms	1138
	22.2.1 Reweighting Algorithms	1138
	22.2.2 Cluster Algorithm and Extensions	1139
	22.2.3 Hybrid Monte Carlo Method	1140
	22.2.4 Simulated Annealing and Extensions	1141
	22.2.5 Replica Monte Carlo	1142
	22.3 Quantum Monte Carlo Method	1143
	22.3.1 Suzuki-Trotter Formalism	1143
	22.3.2 World-Line Approach	1143
	22.3.3 Cluster Algorithm	1144
	22.3.4 Continuous-Time Algorithm	1145
	22.3.5 Worm Algorithm	1146
	22.3.6 Auxiliary Field Approach	1147
	22.3.7 Projector Monte Carlo Method	1147
	22.3.8 Negative-Sign Problem	1149
	22.3.9 Other Exact Methods	1150
	22.4 Bicritical Phenomena in O(5) Model	1150
	22.4.1 Hamiltonian	1151
	22.4.2 Phase Diagram	1151
	22.4.3 Scaling Theory	1152
	22.5 Superconductivity Vortex State	1154
	22.5.1 Model Hamiltonian	1155
	22.5.2 First Order Melting	1155
	22.5.3 Continuous Melting: {protect unhbox voidb@x hbox {B}} || ab Plane	1158
	22.6 Effects of Randomness in Vortex States	1160
	22.6.1 Point-Like Defects	1160
	22.6.2 Columnar Defects	1161
	22.7 Quantum Critical Phenomena	1163
	22.7.1 Quantum Spin Chain	1163
	22.7.2 Mott Transition	1164
	22.7.3 Phase Separation	1165
	References	1166
	Acknowledgements	1175
	About the Authors	1176
	Detailed Contents	1200
	Subject Index	1217