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Title Page |
2 |
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Preface |
5 |
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Contents |
7 |
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Prologue on ideal gases and incompressible fluids |
17 |
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Thermal and caloric equations of state |
17 |
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“mol” |
18 |
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On the history of the equations of state |
19 |
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An elementary kinetic view of the equations of state for ideal gases |
20 |
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Objectives of thermodynamics and its equations of balance |
23 |
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Fields of mechanics and thermodynamics |
23 |
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{\it Mass density, velocity, and temperature} |
23 |
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{\it History of temperature} |
23 |
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Equations of balance |
25 |
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{\it Conservation laws of thermodynamics} |
25 |
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{\it Generic equations of balance for closed and open systems} |
25 |
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{\it Generic local equation of balance in regular points} |
26 |
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Balance of mass |
27 |
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{\it Integral and local balance equations of mass} |
27 |
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{\it Mass balance and nozzle flow} |
27 |
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Balance of momentum |
28 |
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{\it Integral and local balance equations of momentum} |
28 |
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{\it Pressure} |
30 |
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{\it Pressure in an incompressible fluid at rest} |
30 |
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{\it History of pressure and pressure units} |
31 |
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{\it Applications of the momentum balance} |
32 |
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Balance of energy |
42 |
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{\it Kinetic energy, potential energy, and four types of internal energy} |
42 |
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{\it Integral and local equations of balance of energy} |
45 |
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{\it Potential energy} |
47 |
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{\it Balance of internal energy} |
48 |
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{\it Short form of energy balance for closed systems} |
49 |
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{\it First Law for reversible processes. The basis of “pdV - thermodynamics”} |
50 |
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{\it Enthalpy and First Law for stationary flow processes} |
50 |
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{\it “Adiabatic equation of state” for an ideal gas – an integral of the energy balance} |
52 |
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{\it Applications of the energy balance} |
53 |
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History of the First Law |
69 |
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Summary of equations of balance |
71 |
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Constitutive equations |
72 |
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On measuring constitutive functions |
72 |
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{\it The need for constitutive equations} |
72 |
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{\it Constitutive equations for viscous, heat-conducting fluids, vapors, and gas} |
72 |
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Determination of viscosity and thermal conductivity |
74 |
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{\it Shear flow between parallel plates. Newton’s law of friction} |
74 |
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{\it Heat conduction through a window-pane} |
76 |
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Measuring the state functions $p(v,T)$ and $u(v ,T)$ |
78 |
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{\it The need for measurements} |
78 |
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{\it Thermal equations of state} |
78 |
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{\it Caloric equation of state} |
79 |
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{\it Equations of state for air and superheated steam} |
81 |
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{\it Equations of state for liquid water} |
82 |
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State diagrams for fluids and vapors with a phase transition |
83 |
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{\it The phenomenon of a liquid-vapor phase transition} |
83 |
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{\it Melting and sublimation} |
85 |
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{\it Saturated vapor curve of water} |
85 |
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{\it On the anomaly of water} |
88 |
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{\it Wet region and ( p,v) -diagram of water} |
90 |
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{\it 3D phase diagram} |
90 |
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{\it Heat of evaporation and (h,T)–diagram of water} |
91 |
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{\it Applications of saturated steam} |
92 |
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{\it Van der Waals equation} |
94 |
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{\it On the history of liquefying gases and solidifying liquids} |
96 |
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Reversible processes and cycles. “$p$ d$V$ thermodynamics” for the calculation of thermodynamic engines |
98 |
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Work and heat for reversible processes |
98 |
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Compressor and pneumatic machine. The hot air engine |
99 |
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{\it Work needed for the operation of a compressor} |
99 |
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{\it Two-stage compressor} |
101 |
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{\it Pneumatic machine} |
101 |
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{\it Hot air engine} |
102 |
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Work and heat for reversible processes in ideal gases. “Iso-processes” and adiabatic processes |
103 |
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Cycles |
104 |
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{\it Efficiency in the conversion of heat to work} |
104 |
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{\it Efficiencies of special cycles} |
105 |
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Internal combustion cycles |
111 |
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{\it Otto cycle} |
111 |
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{\it Diesel cycle} |
114 |
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{\it On the history of the internal combustion engine} |
116 |
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Gas turbine |
117 |
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{\it Brayton process} |
117 |
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{\it Jet propulsion process} |
118 |
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{\it Turbofan engine} |
119 |
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Entropy |
120 |
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The Second Law of thermodynamics |
120 |
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{\it Formulation and exploitation} |
120 |
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{\it Summary} |
126 |
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Exploitation of the Second Law |
128 |
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{\it Integrability condition} |
128 |
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{\it Internal energy and entropy of a van der Waals gas and of an ideal gas} |
129 |
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{\it Alternatives of the Gibbs equation and its integrability conditions} |
130 |
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{\it Phase equilibrium. Clausius-Clapeyron equation} |
132 |
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{\it Phase equilibrium in a van der Waals gas} |
134 |
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{\it Temperature change during adiabatic throttling Example: Van der Waals gas} |
135 |
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{\it Available free energies} |
138 |
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{\it Stability conditions} |
140 |
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{\it Specific heat cp is singular at the critical point} |
141 |
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A layer of liquid heated from below – onset of convection |
142 |
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On the history of the Second Law |
146 |
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Entropy as $S=k lnW$ |
149 |
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Molecular interpretation of entropy |
149 |
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Entropy of a gas and of a polymer molecule |
149 |
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Entropy as a measure of disorder |
153 |
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Maxwell distribution |
154 |
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Entropy of a rubber rod |
155 |
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Examples for entropy and Second Law. Gas and rubber |
157 |
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{\it Gibbs equation and integrability condition for liquids and solids} |
157 |
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{\it Examples for entropic elasticity} |
159 |
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{\it Real gases and crystallizing rubber} |
160 |
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{\it Free energy of gases and rubber. (p,V)- and(P, L)-curves.} |
162 |
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{\it Reversible and hysteretic phase transitions} |
164 |
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History of the molecular interpretation of entropy |
165 |
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Steam engines and refrigerators |
167 |
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The history of the steam engine |
167 |
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Steam engines |
169 |
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{\it The (T,S)-diagram} |
169 |
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{\it Clausius-Rankine process. The essential role of enthalpy} |
169 |
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{\it Clausius-Rankine process in a (T, S)-diagram} |
171 |
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{\it The (h, s)-diagram} |
173 |
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{\it Steam flow rate and efficiency of a power station} |
175 |
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{\it Carnotization} |
176 |
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{\it Mercury-water binary vapor cycle} |
177 |
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{\it Combined gas-vapor cycle} |
178 |
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Refrigerator and heat pump |
178 |
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{\it Compression refrigerator} |
178 |
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{\it Calculation for a cold storage room} |
179 |
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{\it Absorption refrigerator} |
180 |
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{\it Refrigerants} |
181 |
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{\it Heat pump} |
182 |
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Heat Transfer |
184 |
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Non-Stationary Heat Conduction |
184 |
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{\it The heat conduction equation} |
184 |
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{\it Separation of variables} |
184 |
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{\it Examples of heat conduction} |
185 |
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{\it On the history of non-stationary heat conduction} |
192 |
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Heat Exchangers |
192 |
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{\it Heat transport coefficients and heat transfer coefficient} |
192 |
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{\it Temperature gradients in the flow direction} |
194 |
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{\it Temperatures along the heat exchanger} |
195 |
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Radiation |
197 |
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{\it Coefficients of spectral emission and absorption} |
197 |
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{\it Kirchhoff’s law} |
199 |
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{\it Averaged emission coefficient and averaged absorption number} |
200 |
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{\it Examples of thermodynamics of radiation} |
203 |
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{\it On the history of heat radiation} |
206 |
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Utilization of Solar Energy |
207 |
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{\it Availability} |
207 |
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{\it Thermosiphon} |
208 |
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{\it Green house} |
209 |
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{\it Focusing collectors. The burning glass} |
211 |
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Mixtures, solutions, and alloys |
212 |
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Chemical potentials |
212 |
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{\it Characterization of mixtures} |
212 |
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{\it Chemical potentials. Definition and relation to Gibbs free energy} |
213 |
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{\it Chemical potentials |
214 |
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{\it Measuring chemical potentials} |
216 |
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Quantities of mixing. Chemical potentials of ideal mixtures |
217 |
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{\it Quantities of mixing} |
217 |
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{\it Quantities of mixing of ideal gases} |
219 |
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{\it Ideal mixtures} |
220 |
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{\it Chemical potentials of ideal mixtures} |
220 |
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Osmosis |
221 |
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{\it Osmotic pressure in dilute solutions. Van’t Hoff’s law} |
221 |
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{\it Applications of osmosis} |
223 |
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Mixtures in different phases |
229 |
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{\it Gibbs phase rule} |
229 |
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{\it Degrees of freedom} |
230 |
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Liquid-vapor equilibrium (ideal) |
231 |
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{\it Ideal Raoult law} |
231 |
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{\it Ideal phase diagrams for binary mixtures.} |
232 |
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{\it Evaporation in the (p,T)-diagram} |
234 |
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{\it Saturation pressure decrease and boiling temperature increase} |
235 |
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Distillation, an application of Raoult’s law |
236 |
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{\it mol as a unit} |
236 |
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{\it Simple application of Raoult’s law} |
237 |
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{\it Batch distillation} |
237 |
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{\it Continuous distillation and the separating cascade} |
240 |
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{\it Rectification column} |
242 |
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Liquid-vapor equilibrium (real) |
244 |
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{\it Activity and fugacity} |
244 |
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{\it Raoult’s law for non-ideal mixtures} |
245 |
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{\it Determination of the activity coefficient} |
245 |
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{\it Determination of fugacity coefficients} |
247 |
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{\it Activity coefficient and heat of mixing. Construction of a phase diagram} |
247 |
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{\it Henry coefficient} |
249 |
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Gibbs free energy of a binary mixture in two phases |
251 |
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{\it Graphical determination of equilibrium states} |
251 |
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{\it Graphical representation of chemical potentials} |
254 |
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{\it Phase diagram with unrestricted miscibility} |
254 |
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{\it Miscibility gap in the liquid phase} |
256 |
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Alloys |
256 |
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{\it ( T , c_{1}) –diagrams} |
256 |
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{\it Solid solutions and the eutectic point} |
259 |
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{\it Gibbs phase rule for a binary alloy} |
260 |
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Ternary Phase Diagrams |
260 |
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{\it Representation} |
260 |
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{\it Miscibility gaps in ternary solutions} |
261 |
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Chemically reacting mixtures |
264 |
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Stoichiometry and law of mass action |
264 |
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{\it Stoichiometry} |
264 |
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{\it Application of stoichiometry. Respiratory quotient RQ} |
266 |
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{\it Law of mass action} |
266 |
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{\it Law of mass action for ideal mixtures and mixtures of ideal gases} |
267 |
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{\it On the history of the law of mass action} |
268 |
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{\it Examples for the law of mass action for ideal gases} |
269 |
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{\it Equilibrium in stoichiometric mixtures of ideal gases} |
271 |
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Heats of reaction, entropies of reaction, and absolute values of entropies |
273 |
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{\it The additive constants in u and s} |
273 |
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{\it Heats of reaction} |
275 |
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{\it Entropies of reaction} |
276 |
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{\it Le Chatelier’s principle of least constraint} |
277 |
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Nernst’s heat theorem. The Third Law of thermodynamics |
277 |
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{\it Third Law in Nernst’s formulation} |
277 |
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{\it Application of the Third Law. The latent heat of the transformation gray $\rightarrow$ white in tin} |
278 |
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{\it Third Law in PLANCK’s formulation} |
279 |
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{\it Absolute values of energy and entropy} |
280 |
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Energetic and entropic contributions to equilibrium |
280 |
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{\it Three contributions to the Gibbs free energy} |
280 |
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{\it Examples for minima of the Gibbs free energy} |
282 |
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{\it On the history of the Haber-Bosch synthesis} |
284 |
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The fuel cell |
285 |
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Chemical Reactions |
285 |
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{\it Various types of fuel cells} |
286 |
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{\it Thermodynamics} |
287 |
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{\it Effects of temperature and pressure} |
289 |
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{\it Power of the fuel cell} |
289 |
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{\it Efficiency of the fuel cell} |
290 |
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Thermodynamics of photosynthesis |
291 |
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{\it The dilemma of glucose synthesis} |
291 |
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{\it Balance of particle numbers} |
292 |
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{\it Balance of energy. Why a plant needs lots of water} |
293 |
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{\it Balance of entropy. Why a plant needs air} |
295 |
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{\it Discussion} |
296 |
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Moist air |
298 |
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Characterization of moist air |
298 |
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{\it Moisture content} |
298 |
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{\it Enthalpy of moist air} |
298 |
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{\it Table for moist air} |
299 |
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{\it The ($h_{1+x}$ , x)-diagram} |
301 |
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Simple processes in moist air |
302 |
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{\it Supply of water} |
302 |
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{\it Heating} |
303 |
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{\it Mixing} |
303 |
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{\it Mixing of moist air with fog} |
304 |
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Evaporation limit and cooling limit |
304 |
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{\it Mass balance and evaporation limit} |
304 |
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{\it Energy balance and cooling limit} |
305 |
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Two Instructive Examples: Sauna and Cloud Base |
307 |
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{\it A sauna is prepared} |
307 |
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{\it Cloud base} |
308 |
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Rules of thumb |
310 |
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{\it Alternative measures of moisture} |
310 |
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{\it Dry adiabatic temperature gradient} |
311 |
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Pressure of saturated vapor in the presence of air |
312 |
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Selected problems in thermodynamics |
314 |
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Droplets and bubbles |
314 |
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{\it Available free energy} |
314 |
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{\it Necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium} |
315 |
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{\it Available free energy as a function of radius} |
315 |
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{\it Nucleation barrier for droplets} |
317 |
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{\it Nucleation barrier for bubbles} |
318 |
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{\it Discussion} |
319 |
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Fog and clouds. Droplets in moist air |
319 |
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{\it Problem} |
319 |
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{\it Available free energy. Equilibrium conditions} |
320 |
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{\it Water vapor pressure in phase equilibrium} |
321 |
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{\it The form of the available free energy} |
321 |
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{\it Nucleation barrier and droplet radius} |
324 |
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Rubber balloons |
325 |
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{\it Pressure-radius relation} |
325 |
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{\it Stability of a balloon} |
328 |
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{\it A suggestive argument for the stability of a balloon} |
330 |
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{\it Equilibria between interconnected balloons} |
333 |
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Sound |
335 |
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{\it Wave equation} |
335 |
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{\it Solution of the wave equation, d’Alembert method} |
338 |
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{\it Plane harmonic waves} |
339 |
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{\it Plane harmonic sound waves} |
340 |
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Landau theory of phase transitions |
342 |
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{\it Free energy and load as functions of temperature and strain: Phase transitions of first and second order} |
342 |
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{\it Phase transitions of first order} |
342 |
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{\it Phase transitions of second order} |
345 |
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{\it Phase transitions under load} |
347 |
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{\it A remark on the classification of phase transitions} |
347 |
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Swelling and shrinking of gels |
348 |
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{\it Phenomenon} |
348 |
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{\it Gibbs free energy} |
350 |
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{\it Swelling and shrinking as function of temperature} |
353 |
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Thermodynamics of irreversible processes |
356 |
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Single fluids |
356 |
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{\it The laws of FOURIER and NAVIER-STOKES} |
356 |
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{\it Shear flow and heat conduction between parallel plates} |
358 |
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{\it Absorption and dispersion of sound} |
360 |
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{\it Eshelby tensor} |
362 |
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Mixtures of Fluids |
364 |
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{\it The laws of Fourier, Fick, and Navier-Stokes} |
364 |
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{\it Diffusion coefficient and diffusion equation} |
367 |
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{\it Stationary heat conduction coupled with diffusion and chemical reaction} |
369 |
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Flames |
371 |
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{\it Chapman-Jouguet equations} |
371 |
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{\it Detonations and flames} |
373 |
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{\it Equations of balance inside the flame} |
374 |
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{\it Dimensionless equations} |
376 |
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{\it Solutions} |
377 |
|
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{\it On the precarious nature of a flame} |
379 |
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A model for linear visco-elasticity |
379 |
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{\it Internal variable} |
379 |
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{\it Rheological equation of state} |
381 |
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{\it Creep and stress relaxation} |
382 |
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{\it Stability conditions} |
384 |
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{\it Irreversibility of creep} |
384 |
|
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{\it Frequency-dependent elastic modulus and the complex elastic modulus} |
386 |
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Shape memory alloys |
387 |
|
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{\it Phenomena and applications} |
387 |
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{\it A model for shape memory alloys} |
391 |
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{\it Entropic stabilization} |
392 |
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{\it Pseudoelasticity} |
395 |
|
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{\it Latent heat} |
398 |
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{\it Kinetic theory of shape memory} |
400 |
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{\it Molecular dynamics} |
404 |
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Name and subject index |
407 |
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