Contents	8
	Series editors’ preface	10
	Figures	12
	Tables	15
	Boxes	16
	Acknowledgements	18
	An introduction to environmental biology	19
	1 The basic organisation of living forms	21
	1.1 The fundamentals of life	21
	1.1.1 The characteristics of life	21
	1.1.2 The cell: the fundamental unit of life	24
	1.1.2.2 Cell organelles and their functions	26
	1.1.3 The materials of life	32
	1.1.3.1 Carbohydrates	34
	1.2 The diversity of life	39
	1.2.1 Levels of organisation	39
	1.2.2 The species concept	41
	1.2.3 Classification and the binomial system	42
	1.2.4 The six kingdoms	44
	Summary points	50
	Discussion / Further study	51
	Further reading	51
	References	52
	2 The biosphere	53
	2.1 The terrestrial biomes	54
	2.1.1 Tundra, the cold, boggy plains of the north	54
	2.1.2 Taiga, the evergreen boreal forests	56
	2.1.3 Temperate deciduous forests	56
	2.1.4 Temperate rainforest	56
	2.1.5 Temperate grasslands	57
	2.1.6 Tropical grasslands – the savannah	57
	2.1.7 Chaparral: shrubs and small trees	57
	2.1.8 Deserts	59
	2.1.9 Tropical rainforests	59
	2.1.10 Tropical seasonal forests	60
	2.2 The aquatic biomes	60
	2.2.1 Wetlands	62
	2.2.2 Freshwater life zones	63
	2.2.3 Marine life zones	65
	2.2.4 Estuarine and brackish environments	69
	2.2.5 Coral reefs	70
	Summary points	73
	Discussion / Further study	73
	Further reading	73
	References	74
	3 Basic ecological concepts and processes	75
	3.1 Energy in ecosystems	75
	3.1.1 The laws of thermodynamics	76
	3.1.2 The flow of energy	76
	3.2 Food chains and food webs	78
	3.2.1 Feeding types and relationships	78
	3.2.2 Trophic levels	84
	3.2.3 Ecological pyramids and the flow of energy	87
	3.2.4 Food chains and food webs	89
	3.3 Biogeochemical cycles and material recycling	91
	3.3.1 The hydrological (water) cycle	96
	3.3.2 The carbon cycle	97
	3.3.3 The oxygen cycle	99
	3.3.4 Nutrient cycles	99
	Summary points	104
	Discussion / Further study	105
	Further reading	106
	References	106
	4 Conditions and resources: major determinants of ecology	107
	4.1 Conditions	109
	4.1.1 Temperature	110
	4.1.2 Moisture	111
	4.1.3 pH	112
	4.1.4 Salinity	113
	4.1.5 Movement of air and water	114
	4.1.6 Substrate type and structure	115
	4.1.7. Contaminants and pollutants	117
	4.2 Resources	118
	4.2.1 Solar radiation	121
	4.2.2 Inorganic materials	122
	4.2.3 Food	125
	4.2.4 Space	129
	Summary points	131
	Discussion / Further study	132
	Further reading	132
	References	133
	5 Individuals	134
	5.1 What is an individual?	134
	5.1.1 Unitary and modular organisms	135
	5.2 Ecological physiology: resistance, tolerance and adaptation	136
	5.2.1 Resistance and tolerance	137
	5.2.2 Adaptation	139
	5.3 Metabolic rate	140
	5.4 Behaviour	143
	5.4.1 Sedentary or mobile – the strategic consequences	143
	5.4.2 Behavioural mechanisms	144
	5.4.3 Dispersal and migration	148
	5.5 Reproduction	148
	5.5.1 Asexual reproduction	149
	5.5.2 Sexual reproduction	149
	5.6 Life cycles and life history strategy	151
	5.6.1 Size	153
	5.6.2 Growth and development rates	154
	5.6.3 Reproduction	154
	5.6.4. Storage mechanisms	154
	5.6.5 Dormancy	155
	5.7 Feeding strategies and mechanisms	156
	Summary points	159
	Discussion / Further study	160
	Further reading	160
	References	161
	6 Populations	162
	6.1 Ecological genetics	162
	6.1.1 The genetic basis of variation	162
	6.1.2 The sources of variation	163
	6.1.4 Geographical variation	167
	6.1.5 Mechanisms of speciation (evolution of new species)	167
	6.2 Population growth and regulation	168
	6.2.1 Population size and density	169
	6.2.2 Population dispersion / distribution	169
	6.2.3 Size and age structure	170
	6.2.4 Population growth	170
	6.2.5 Population regulation	173
	6.2.6 Species interactions	174
	Summary points	177
	Discussion / Further study	178
	Further reading	179
	References	179
	7 Communities and ecosystems	180
	7.1 Habitats and niches	181
	7.2 Patchiness	182
	7.3 Trophic interactions and productivity	183
	7.3.1 Measuring productivity	186
	7.3.2 Comparative ecosystem productivity	187
	7.3.3 Trophic interactions and pollution	189
	7.4. Succession	191
	7.5 Biodiversity, stability and resilience	193
	7.6 Biogeography	197
	Summary points	198
	Discussion / Further study	199
	Further reading	200
	References	200
	Glossary	201
	Index	209