Contents	6
	Contributors	10
	About the Editors	14
	About the Contributors	16
	1 Introduction	28
	The Development of Gender Studies in Psychology	28
	Methodological Issues	30
	Purpose and Goals of this Handbook	31
	Handbook Overview	32
	Volume I: Gender Research in General and Experimental Psychology	33
	History of Psychology	33
	Research Methods	33
	Brain and Behavior	34
	Learning, Education, and Cognitive Processes	34
	Communication	35
	Emotion and Motivation	35
	Lifespan Development	35
	Volume II: Gender Research in Social and Applied Psychology	36
	Personality Psychology	36
	Abnormal and Clinical Psychology	36
	Psychotherapy	37
	Social Psychology	37
	Industrial--Organizational Psychology	38
	Health Psychology	38
	Special Topics in Applied Psychology	39
	Observations and Gaps	39
	Conclusion	42
	References	42
	Part VIII Personality Psychology	44
	2 Gender and Personality	45
	Social Influences on Gender Differences in Personality	46
	Masculinity and Femininity in Personality Theory	47
	History of the Masculinity and Femininity Constructs	47
	Instrumentality and Expressiveness as Mediators of Gender Differences	49
	Expressiveness, Instrumentality, and Mental Health	50
	Understanding Gender Differences Through the Five-Factor Model	51
	Gender Differences in FFM Traits	52
	Evaluation of FFM Research and Directions for Future Study of Gender Issues	54
	Gender Differences in Self-evaluations	56
	Global Self-esteem	56
	Multi-dimensional Self-concept	57
	Directions for Future Research	59
	Social and Situational Contexts	59
	Promising Directions for Studying Wellness and Transcendence	60
	Sense of Coherence	61
	Conclusions	62
	References	62
	3 Gender and Motivation for Achievement, AffiliationIntimacy, and Power	67
	Reemergence of Interest in Social Motives	68
	Best Practices for Measuring Social Motives in Women and Men	69
	Distinction Between Implicit and Explicit Measures	70
	Achievement Motivation	71
	Motive to Avoid Success	73
	Relationship of Implicit Measures to Explicit Measures of n Achievement	74
	AffiliationIntimacy Motivation	75
	Affiliation--Intimacy and Relationships	76
	Physiological Correlates of Affiliation--Intimacy	77
	Power Motivation	78
	Profligacy and Responsibility Training	79
	Physiological Correlates of Power	80
	Social Contextual Factors and Social Motives	81
	Some Advice and Promising Areas for Future Research	83
	Summary and Conclusion	84
	References	84
	4 Gender Issues in Psychological Testing of Personality and Abilities	89
	Psychological Assessment and Psychological Testing	89
	Context and the Assessment Experience	90
	Assumptions in Psychological Testing	91
	Psychometric Theory	92
	Universal Humans or Cultural Beings?	92
	Personality: Traits or Processes?	93
	Gender and Norms	94
	Gender Neutral	94
	Gender Based	95
	Gender Irrelevant	95
	The Current Practice of Psychological Testing	96
	Types of Tests	96
	Test Functions	97
	Tests of Achievement	97
	Tests for Selection	97
	Diagnosis and Intervention	98
	Gender Bias and Tests of Personality and Psychopathology	99
	Biased Theories	99
	Biased Operationalization	100
	Biased Test Construction	100
	Differential Item Endorsement Probability	101
	Different Item Meaning: Reference Groups	101
	Gendered Correlates of Item Bias	102
	Gender and Social Appropriateness of Items	103
	Bias in Structural Issues and Statistical Assumptions	103
	Construction of Personality Tests	104
	Empirical Tests	104
	MMPI and MMPI-2	104
	16PF	106
	Theoretically Developed Tests	106
	Item Response Theory (IRT)	107
	Conclusion and Future Directions	109
	References	109
	Part IX Abnormal and Clinical Psychology	115
	5 Gender Stereotypes in Diagnostic Criteria	116
	Fundamental Assumptions Concerning Gender Bias in Diagnosis	117
	Diagnostic Categories Replete with Gender Stereotypes	118
	Personality Disorders	118
	Mood Disorders	121
	Anxiety Disorders	124
	Some Issues That Cut Across Diagnostic Categories	126
	Poverty	126
	Violence and Abuse	127
	Race and Racial Discrimination	127
	Stereotypes Concerning Sexual Orientation and Identity	128
	Gender-Role Factors in Seeking Treatment	129
	Future Directions	129
	References	130
	6 Gender Identity Disorder: Concerns and Controversies	135
	History and Diagnostic Criteria	135
	Estimated Prevalence	137
	Etiology	139
	Biological Explanations	139
	Psychosocial Explanations	140
	Psychodynamic Explanations	142
	Treatment	142
	Transgender Health Concerns	144
	Current Controversies	145
	Does GID Qualify as a Mental Disorder?	145
	The Insurance Debate	147
	Recommendations to Ensure Insurance Coverage for SRS	148
	Recommendations for Reform	148
	Future Directions	149
	References	150
	7 Gender, Sexual Orientation, and Vulnerability to Depression	156
	Epidemiology	156
	Comparisons of Women and Men	157
	Developmental Trends	157
	First Onsets Versus Duration of Depression	157
	Symptom Differences and Treatment Seeking	158
	Comparisons of Sexual Minorities and Heterosexuals	158
	Developmental Trends	159
	Summary	159
	Explanations of Group Differences in Depression	159
	Stress Explanations	159
	Stress and Women's Greater Vulnerability to Depression	160
	Victimization	160
	Chronic Strain of Gender Role	160
	Stress and Sexual Minorities' Greater Vulnerability to Depression	160
	Victimization	161
	Discrimination	161
	Hate Crimes	162
	Interpersonal Factors	162
	Interpersonal Factors and Women's Greater Vulnerability to Depression	162
	Social Support and Interpersonal Stress	162
	Rejection Sensitivity	163
	Interpersonal Factors and Sexual Minorities' Vulnerability to Depression	163
	Social Support	163
	Rejection Sensitivity	163
	Cognitive Factors	164
	Cognitive Factors and Women's Vulnerability to Depression	164
	Rumination	164
	Other Cognitive Factors	165
	Cognitive Factors and Sexual Minorities' Vulnerability to Depression	165
	Hopelessness	165
	Rumination	165
	A Stress-Mediation Model of Vulnerability to Depression	166
	Cognitive Mechanisms	167
	Interpersonal Mechanisms	168
	Conclusion and Future Directions	168
	References	170
	8 Gender and Body Image	175
	What Is Body Image?	175
	Gender and Body Perceptions	176
	Fragmented vs. Functional	176
	Third Person vs. First Person	176
	Overestimate vs. Underestimate	177
	Gender and Body Feelings	177
	Body Dissatisfaction	177
	Body Shame	178
	Appearance Anxiety	179
	Gender and Body Cognitions	180
	Body Schematicity	180
	Body-Ideal Internalization	181
	Gender and Body Behaviors	183
	Eating Disorders	184
	Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)	184
	Anabolic Steroid Use	184
	Cosmetic Surgery	185
	Avoidance	186
	Theoretical Explanations	186
	Tripartite Model of Social Influence	186
	Parents	186
	Peers	187
	Media	188
	Gender Socialization	190
	Objectification Theory	192
	Future Directions	194
	Conclusions	196
	References	196
	Part X Psychotherapy	207
	9 Feminist Psychotherapies: Theory, Research, and Practice	208
	Psychological Distress: Diagnosis, Assessment, and Sociocultural Influences	213
	Gender and Sexism in Psychotherapy	213
	The Effects of Other ''Isms''	214
	Traumatic Experiences	216
	The Meaning of Feminist Therapy	217
	Perceptions of Feminist Therapy/Therapists	217
	Praxis What Do Feminist Therapists Do?	219
	General Practices	219
	Qualitative Research	219
	Quantitative Research	221
	Specific Issues in the Therapeutic Relationship	223
	Nature of the Relationship	223
	Self-disclosure	224
	Termination	225
	Men as Feminist Therapists	225
	Outcome and Evaluation Research	226
	Immigrant and International Women	227
	Hmong Women Living in the United States	227
	Women in Bosnia--Herzegovina	228
	Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse	229
	Men Who Abuse Their Partners	231
	Summary	231
	Directions for Future Research	232
	Differentiation Between Feminist Therapists	232
	Second and Third Waves	232
	Men as Feminist Therapists	232
	Additional Comparisons Between Feminist and Non-feminist Practices	233
	General Practices	233
	Particular Phases and Processes of Therapy	233
	Clients' Perceptions and Experiences of Feminist Therapy	233
	Experience of Diverse Groups	234
	Efficacy, Evaluation, and Outcome Research	234
	Theoretical Considerations	234
	Current and Future Practice	235
	References	236
	10 Psychotherapy with Men	241
	The Case of David: Finding Strength in Being Vulnerable	242
	Knowledge About Working with Male Clients	243
	A Rationale for Masculine-Sensitive Psychotherapy	243
	Understanding the Cultures of Masculinity	245
	Seeking Psychological Help	248
	Presenting Concerns	249
	Psychotherapists Attitudes Toward and Beliefs About Working with Men	250
	Negative Biases Against Male Clients	251
	Applying the Multicultural Considerations Paradigm to Psychotherapy with Men	251
	A Strength-Based Perspective	252
	Skills for Working with Men in Psychotherapy	253
	Engaging Men in Psychotherapy	254
	Recognize, Acknowledge, and Affirm Gently the Difficulty That Men Have in Entering and Being in Psychotherapy	254
	Help the Client Save ''Masculine Face''	254
	Educate Male Clients Up Front About the Process of Therapy	255
	Set Goals That Match the Needs of the Male Client	255
	Be Patient	255
	Use a Therapy Language and Approach That Is Congruent with Clients' Gender-Role Identity	256
	Be Genuine and Real	256
	Addressing and Assessing Masculine Socialization in Psychotherapy	256
	Revisiting the Case of David	259
	Future Directions for Research on Psychotherapy with Men	261
	Helping Men to Seek Psychological Help	261
	Retaining Men in Psychotherapy	262
	Effective Treatments and Improving Therapy Outcome	262
	Concluding Thoughts on Psychotherapy with Men	263
	References	263
	11 Gender Issues in Family Therapy and Couples Counseling	272
	The Authors Social Locations	273
	Historical Overview of the Feminist Revision of Family Therapy (19702000)	273
	Working with Men from a Feminist Perspective	275
	Queering the Discussion	276
	Tensions Between Race/Ethnicity and Gender/Feminism in Family Therapy	279
	An Intersectionalities Framework	280
	The Continuing Problem of White, Heterosexual Privilege	281
	Contemporary Trends in Couples and Family Therapy	283
	Evidence-Based Treatment in Couples Therapy	283
	Empirical Research on Couples Interaction: Physiology, Socialization, or Power?	284
	Problems with First-Order Change	285
	Cultural Competence and EBT	287
	The Social Justice Perspective	288
	Conclusion and Future Directions	290
	References	292
	Part XI Social Psychology	297
	12 Gender, Peer Relations, and Intimate Romantic Relationships	298
	Gender and Peer Relations	298
	Same-Sex Friendships	298
	Cross-Sex Friendships	300
	Gender and Intimate Romantic Relationships	301
	Phase I: Coming Together	301
	Mate Preferences	301
	Mate Preferences: Evolutionary Theory	302
	Mate Preferences: Socio-ecological Theories	304
	Relationship Initiation and Dating	305
	Sociocultural Contexts: Dating Scripts	306
	Social and Dyadic Contexts: Role of Peers and Romantic Partners	308
	Relationship Initiation in Gay Men and Lesbians	309
	Relationship Initiation Across Cultures	309
	Phase II: Relational Maintenance	310
	Commitment	311
	Intimacy	311
	Self-disclosure	311
	Responsiveness	312
	Relationship Satisfaction	313
	Phase III: Coming Apart	313
	Costs of Gender-Role Traditionalism for Intimate Romantic Relationships	315
	Relational Costs	315
	Sexual Costs	316
	Summary and Future Directions	317
	References	318
	13 Gender, Aggression, and Prosocial Behavior	328
	Aggression	328
	Defining Aggression	328
	Stereotypes of Gender and Aggression	329
	Controlled Laboratory Studies	331
	Expressions of Aggression in Everyday Life	332
	Personal Experiences of Violence in Everyday Life	332
	Gender and Criminal Behavior	333
	Intimate Partner Violence and Aggression	333
	Violence and Aggression Toward Children and Elderly Family Members	334
	Sibling Violence	335
	Aggression in Children: Peer Violence	336
	Rape	338
	Workplace Violence	339
	Summary of Gender and Aggression Research	339
	Prosocial Behavior	340
	Empathy, Nurturance, and Sensitivity to Nonverbal Cues	341
	Helping Others	342
	Personal Disclosure	343
	Compassionate Love	344
	Future Directions	345
	Interactions Between Aggression and Prosocial Behavior	345
	Moving Outside the Laboratory and Considering Social Context	346
	Lack of Social Context in the Laboratory	346
	Effects of Using Psychology Student Samples	347
	Gender, Aggression, and Prosocial Behavior in Other Cultures	347
	References	347
	14 Gender and Group Behavior	353
	Gender Effects on Group Behavior	353
	Communal and Social Behavior	353
	Social Influence	355
	Emergent Leadership	357
	Men's Resistance to Women's Influence and Leadership	358
	Gender Stereotypes and Gender Effects on Group Behavior	359
	Gender Stereotypes About Agency and the Double Standard	359
	Gender Stereotypes About Communion and the Double Bind	361
	Gender Effects on Group Performance	363
	Same-Gender Groups	363
	Mixed-Gender Groups	364
	Future Directions and Conclusion	367
	References	368
	15 Sexual and Gender Prejudice	375
	Sexual Prejudice Against Gay and Lesbian Individuals	375
	Homophobia and Its Discontents	375
	Sex and Gender	376
	Religion	377
	In-Group Domination	378
	Internalized Homophobia	378
	Summary	378
	Sexual Prejudice Against Bisexual Individuals	379
	Sources of Prejudice: Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation	379
	Further Sources of Prejudice	380
	Internalized Biphobia	381
	Summary	381
	Gender Prejudice Against Transgender Individuals	382
	Contextual Origins	382
	Prevalence of Gender Prejudice	383
	Consequences of Gender Prejudice	384
	Summary	385
	Positive Attitudes Toward Sexual Minorities	385
	Future Research Directions	386
	References	388
	Part XII Industrial-Organizational Psychology	393
	16 Gender and Occupational Choice	394
	Explanations	397
	Barriers and Supports	398
	Gender Stereotypes	398
	Parents	398
	Peers	399
	Teachers	400
	Media	400
	Ability	400
	Perceived Abilities and Motivations	402
	Summary and Directions for Future Research	404
	Future Directions	407
	The Changing World of Work	407
	Contextualization	407
	Longitudinal Designs	408
	References	409
	17 Gender and the Division of Labor	416
	Links Between Work and Family	416
	The Cultural Template of Men at Work and Women at Home	417
	History and Importance of Household Labor	417
	Theories of Household Labor	419
	Exchange/Resource Theories	419
	Time Availability/Constraints	419
	Relative Resources and Economic Dependency	420
	Critiques of Exchange and Resource Perspectives	420
	Gender Theories	421
	Socialization and Attitudes Toward Gender Roles	421
	Gender Construction	421
	Methods of Studying Household Labor	422
	Predictors of Household Labor: Empirical Findings	423
	Women's and Men's Employment	423
	Earnings	424
	Education	425
	Age and the Life Course	425
	Attitudes Toward Gender Roles	425
	Marital Status and Union Type	426
	Lesbian and Gay Couples and Families	426
	Race and Ethnicity	427
	Outcomes of Household Labor	428
	Marital Happiness, Marital Satisfaction, and Marital Quality	428
	An Emerging Focus on Fairness Evaluations	428
	Psychological Adjustment	429
	Work--Family and Family--Work Spillover	430
	Concluding Comments and Future Directions	430
	References	432
	18 The Gendered Nature of Workplace Mistreatment	438
	Conceptual Space of Workplace Mistreatment	438
	Chapter Overview	440
	Gendered Frameworks of the Antecedents of Workplace Mistreatment	440
	Sexual Harassment	440
	Incivility	441
	Buss' Framework of Aggression	442
	Contextual Influences on Mistreatment	443
	Gendered Profiles of Targets and Perpetrators	444
	Incivility	444
	Bullying	444
	Sexual Harassment	445
	Workplace Aggression/Violence	446
	Reactions to Workplace Mistreatment	447
	Appraisal Processes	447
	Coping Processes	448
	Escalating Aggression	450
	The Impact of Workplace Mistreatment: Is It the Same for Women and Men?	450
	Psychological and Physical Consequences	451
	Work-Related Consequences	451
	Conclusion and Directions for Future Research	452
	References	452
	19 Gender and Leadership: Negotiating the Labyrinth	457
	Representation of Women in Leader Roles	457
	WorkFamily Issues	459
	Discrimination and Prejudice	460
	Gender and Leader Stereotypes	461
	The Effects of Incompatible Leader and the Gender Roles	464
	Organizational Barriers to Womens Leadership	465
	Demands for Long Hours and Relocation	466
	Masculine Organizational Culture	467
	Barriers to Building Social Capital	468
	Challenges of Obtaining Desirable Assignments	469
	Leadership Effectiveness	469
	Organizational Effectiveness of Gender-Integrated Executive Teams	470
	Effectiveness of Individual Male and Female Leaders	471
	Leadership Style and Leaders' Effectiveness	472
	Mapping Future Research Directions	475
	References	476
	Part XIII Health Psychology	483
	20 Gender, Health, and Health Behaviors	484
	Life Expectancy	484
	Health Behaviors	485
	Health Service Use and Health-Related Symptoms	487
	Gendered Patterns of Risk	488
	Why Do Individual Health Behaviors Differ by Gender?	489
	Other Social and Demographic Categories	491
	Socioeconomic Context	492
	Gender Convergence	493
	Gender and Socioeconomic Status in Developing and Emerging Countries	493
	High-Risk Activities	495
	Future Directions	498
	Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) Health Issues	499
	Indigenous, Migrant, and Bicultural Individuals	499
	References	500
	21 Gender, Stress, and Coping	507
	Gender Differences in Stress and Coping	507
	Models of Stress and Coping	507
	Gender Differences in Stress and Coping: Considered in Context	509
	Coping with Interpersonal Stress	510
	Coping with Chronic Illness	512
	Coping with Work-Related Stress	514
	Gender Differences in Social Support	516
	Structural and Functional Aspects of Support	517
	Perceived vs. Received Social Support	518
	Social Support Networks	519
	Stress, Coping, and Gender in Diverse Populations	521
	What Can We Conclude About Stress and Coping in Women and Men?	522
	Future Directions for Research on Gender, Stress, and Coping	523
	References	524
	22 Gender and Health-Care Utilization	528
	Health-Care Access and Utilization	528
	Ambulatory Care	530
	Medications	530
	Hospital Admissions and Procedures	531
	Gender Stereotypes and PhysicianPatient Communication	532
	Gender Stereotypes	532
	Reporting Style	533
	Health Beliefs and Physician--Patient Communication	533
	Alzheimers Disease and Long-Term Care	534
	Long-Term Care	535
	Cancer	536
	Breast Cancer	537
	Prostate Cancer	538
	Lung Cancer	539
	Colorectal Cancer	540
	Diabetes	541
	Health Effects	541
	Diabetes and Utilization of Care	542
	Interventions and Programs	542
	Sexual and Reproductive Health	543
	HIV/AIDS	544
	References	546
	Future Directions	545
	23 Gender Issues in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic Illness	552
	Disease Knowledge, Screening, and Diagnosis	554
	Disease Knowledge	554
	Screening Practices	555
	Early Disease Diagnosis	556
	Reaction to Diagnosis	556
	Adjustment to Chronic Illness	557
	Gender Differences in Adjustment to Chronic Illness	558
	Gender Differences in Psychological Adjustment	558
	Agency and Communion	560
	Dyadic Coping and the Interpersonal Context	561
	Directions for Future Research	563
	Sexual Minority Status	563
	Cultural and Religious Implications	564
	Conclusion	565
	References	566
	Part XIV Special Topics in Applied Psychology	572
	24 Gender in Sport and Exercise Psychology	573
	Framework for Gender in Sport and Exercise Psychology	574
	SocialHistorical Context of Sport and Physical Activity	574
	Early Women's Sport and Physical Education	575
	From the 1970s to Today's Gendered Sport	575
	Gender and Physical Activity/Exercise Participation	577
	Gender Scholarship in Sport and Exercise Psychology	578
	Gender Differences and Gender Roles	579
	Gender Roles and Gender Conflict	580
	Gender Stereotypes	580
	Gender Bias in the Media	581
	Gender and Self-perceptions in Sport	583
	Gender, Expectations, and Participation	583
	Physical Activity, Gender, and Body Image	584
	Body Image and Sport Participation	584
	Body Image, Sport, and Eating Disorders	584
	Body Image and Physical Activity	585
	Body Image and Muscularity	585
	Physical Activity and Adolescent Development	586
	Gender and Sexuality in Sport and Physical Activity	587
	Homophobia and Professional Sport	587
	Sexual Prejudice in Non-professional Sport and Physical Activity	588
	Sexual Harassment in Sport and Exercise	589
	Advancing Gender Research and Social Action in Sport and Exercise Psychology	589
	References	590
	25 Ethical and Methodological Considerations for Gender Researchers in Forensic Psychology	596
	Defining Gender	597
	Methodological and Epistemological Pluralism in Gender Research	597
	The Goals of This Chapter and a Final Disclaimer	597
	General Considerations in Research in Forensic Contexts	598
	Standards for Forensic Research Relative to Research in Other Contexts	598
	Forensic Versus Therapeutic Roles	599
	Ethical Issues in Forensic Research	600
	Confidentiality and Anonymity	600
	Harm	603
	Informed Consent	605
	Disclosure of Potential Conflict of Interest	606
	Interstate Research	607
	Methodological Issues in Forensic Research	608
	Sampling	608
	Measurement	610
	Response Bias	611
	Fairness and Bias in Measurement	613
	Reliance on Simulation Research	615
	Reliance on Self-report	616
	Archival Data	616
	Conclusion and Directions for Future Research	617
	References	618
	26 The Treatment of Gender in Community Psychology Research	622
	The Field of Community Psychology	622
	Conceptualization of Gender	624
	Method	625
	Observations	627
	Gender as a Grouping Variable	627
	Gender as a Descriptive Variable	627
	Gender as a Demographic Variable	629
	Gender as a Risk or Protective Factor	629
	Gender as an Influence on Other Variables in a Theoretical Relationship	630
	Gender as an Individual-Level Difference Variable Within an Ecological Framework	631
	Gender as an Intersecting Variable	631
	Gender as a Process Variable	632
	Gender as a Contextual Variable	634
	Individual Gender-Related Attitudes as Context	634
	Relationships as Context	635
	Cultural Narratives About Gender as Context	636
	A Look at Gender Treatment Over Time	637
	Reflections and Future Directions	638
	Redefining Dualisms	640
	Conceptualizing Gender Systemically	641
	Critical Consciousness as Essential to Quality Research	642
	Conclusion	644
	References	645
	27 Gender and Media: Content, Uses, and Impact	651
	Media Content: Quantity and Quality of Gender Representation	652
	Gender and Media Use: Video Games, Internet, Sexual Material, and Film Genres	658
	Video Games	658
	New Media	660
	Sexually Explicit Content	662
	Film Genres	664
	Key Areas of Impact: Aggression, Self/Sexual Objectification, and Stereotypes	665
	Aggression	665
	Self/Sexual Objectification	666
	Stereotyping: Media Threats and Solutions	668
	Conclusion and Future Directions	670
	References	671
	28 Gender and Military Psychology	678
	Gender and Military Careers: Segregation and Progression	678
	Gender and Occupational Segregation	679
	Gender, Combat, and the ''Warrior Ethic''	681
	Gender Differences in Occupational Stratification	683
	Career Progression of Ethnic or Visible Minorities in the Military	684
	Gender, Career Progression, and Leadership	684
	Gender and Harassment in the Military	686
	Harassment Experiences of Military Personnel	687
	Conclusions from the Harassment Surveys	691
	WorkFamily Issues in the Military	693
	Balancing Work and Family in the Military Context	694
	Work--Family Policies in the Militaries of Various Countries	695
	Gay Men and Lesbians in the Military	696
	Cross-National Comparisons of Policies Concerning Lesbians and Gay Men in the Military	697
	Integrative Summary, Conclusions, and Future Research Directions	698
	References	699
	Author Index	704
	Subject Index	784